FORGE-PRACTICE 


(ELEMENTARY) 


BY 


JOHN    LORD    BACON 

Instructor  in  Forge-work,  JLewis  Institute,  Chicago 
Junior  Member,  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Enfineert 


FIRST  EDITION1 
SECOND    THOUSAND. 


NEW  YORK 

JOHN  WILEY  &   SONS 

LONDON  :  CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  LIMITED 

1905 


Copyright,  1904 

BY 
JOHN  L.  BACON 


ROBERT  DRtlMMOND,    PRINTER,    NRVT   YORK 


Co  m 

WITHOUT  WHOSE   ASSISTANCE   IT  WOULD 

NEVER     HAVE     BEEN     WRITTEN, 

THIS  LITTLE  VOLUME  IS 

DEDICATED. 


2066037 


PREFACE. 


THIS  little  volume  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  series  of 
notes  given  to  the  students  at  Lewis  Institute  from  time 
to  time  in  connection  with  shop  work  of  the  character 
described. 

It  is  not  the  author's  purpose  to  attempt  to  put  forth 
anything  which  will  in  any  way  take  the  place  of  actual 
shop  work,  but  rather  to  give  some  explanation  which  will 
aid  in  the  production  of  work  in  an  intelligent  manner. 

The  examples  cited  are  not  necessarily  given  in  the 
order  in  which  they  could  most  advantageously  be  made 
as  a  series  of  exercises,  but  are  grouped  under  general 
headings  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  more  convenient  for 
reference. 

The  original  drawings  from  which  the  engravings 
were  made  were  drawn  by  L.  S.  B. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  I 

PAGB 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION  OF  FORGE  AND  TOOLS i 


CHAPTER  II. 
WELDING 17 

CHAPTER  III. 
CALCULATION  OF  STOCK  FOR  BENT  SHAPES 41 

CHAPTER  IV 
UPSETTING,  DRAWING  OUT,  AND  BENDING 51 

CHAPTER  V. 
SIMPLE  FORGED  WORK 68 

CHAPTER  VI. 
CALCULATION  OF  STOCK;  AND  MAKING  OF  GENERAL  FORCINGS.  ...     90 

CHAPTER  VII. 
STEAM-HAMMER  WORK  , 120 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

DUPLICATE  WORK 146 

Tii 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

PAGE 

METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL 159 


CHAPTER  X. 
TOOL-STEEL  WORK 174 

CHAPTER  XI. 
TOOL  FORGING  AND  TEMPERING .•  197 

CHAPTER  XII. 
MISCELLANEOUS  WORK 221 

TABLES 243 

INDEX 251 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION   OF  FORGE  AND  TOOLS. 

Forge. — The  principal  part  of  the  forge  as  gener- 
ally made  now  is  simply  a  cast-iron  hearth  with 
a  bowl,  or  depression,  in  the  center  for  the 'fire. 
In  the  bottom  of  this  bowl  is  an  opening  through 
which  the  blast  is  forced.  This  blast-opening 
is  known  as  the  tuyere.  Tuyeres  are  made  in 
various  shapes;  but  the  object  is  the  same  in  all, 
that  is,  to  provide  an  opening,  or  a  number  of 
openings,  of  such  a  shape  as  to  easily  allow  the 
blast  to  pass  through,  and  at  the  same  time,  as 
much  as  possible,  to  prevent  the  cinders  from 
dropping  into  the  blast-pipe. 

There  should  be  some  means  of  opening  the 
blast-pipe  beneath  the  tuyere  and  cleaning  out 
the  cinders  which  work  through  the  tuyere-open- 
ings, as  some  cinders  are  bound  to  do  this  no 
matter  how  carefully  the  tuyere  is  designed. 

When  a  long  fire  is  wanted,  sometimes  several 


2  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

tuyeres  are  placed  in  a  line ;  and  for  some  special 
work  the  tuyeres  take  the  form  of  nozzles  pro- 
jecting inwardly  from  the  side  of  the  forge. 

Coal. — The  coal  used  for  forge-work  should  be 
of  the  best  quality  bituminous,  or  soft,  coal.  It 
should  coke  easily;  that  is,  when  dampened  and 
put  on  the  fire  it  should  cake  up,  form  coke,  and 
not  break  into  small  pieces.  It  should  be  as  free 
from  sulphur  as  possible,  and  make  very  little 
clinker  when  burned. 

Good  forge-coal  should  be  of  even  structure 
through  the  lumps,  and  the  lumps  should  crumble 
easily  in  the  hand.  The  lumps  should  crumble 
rather  than  split  up  into  layers,  and  the  broken 
pieces  should  look  bright  and  glossy  on  all  faces, 
almost  like  black  glass,  and  show  no  dull-looking 
streaks. 

Ordinary  soft  coal,  such  as  is  used  for  "steam- 
ing-coal,"  makes  a  dirty  fire  with  much  clinker. 
"  Steaming-coal "  when  broken  is  liable  to  split 
into  layers,  some  of  which  are  bright  and  glossy, 
while  others  are  dull  and  slaty-looking. 

Fire. — On  the  fire,  to  a  very  great  extent,  depends 
the  success  or  failure  of  all  forging  operations, 
particularly  work  with  tool-steel  and  welding. 

In  building  a  new  fire  the  ashes,  cinders,  etc., 
should  be  cleaned  away  from  the  center  of  the 
forge  down  to  the  tuyere.  Do  not  clean  out  the 
whole  top  of  the  forge,  but  only  the  part  where 
the  new  fire  is  wanted,  leaving,  after  the  old 
material  has  been  taken  out,  a  clean  hole  in  which 
to  start  the  fresh  fire. 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION   OF   FORGE    AND   TOOLS.  3 

The  hearth  of  the  forge  is  generally  kept  filled 
with  cinders,  etc.,  even  with  the  top  of  the  rim. 

Shavings,  oily  waste,  or  some  other  easily  lighted 
material  should  be  placed  on  top  of  the  tuyere 
and  set  on  fire. 

As  soon  as  the  shavings  are  well  lighted,  the 
blast  should  be  turned  on  and  coke  (more  or  less 
of  which  is  always  left  over  from  the  last  fire) 
put  on  top  and  outside  of  the  burning  shavings. 
Over  this  the  "green  coal"  should  be  spread. 

Green  coal  is  fresh  coal  dampened  with  water. 
Before  using  the  forge-coal  it  should  be  broken 
into  small  pieces  and  thoroughly  wet  with  water. 
This  is  necessary,  as  it  holds  together  better  when 
coking,  making  better  coke  and  keeping  in  the 
heat  of  the  fire  better.  It  is  also  easier  to  prevent 
the  fire  from  spreading  out  too  much,  as  this 
dampened  coal  can  be  packed  down  hard  around 
the  edges,  keeping  the  blast  from  blowing  through. 

The  fire  should  not  be  used  until  all  the  coal  on 
top  has  been  coked.  As  the  fire  burns  out  in  the 
center,  the  coke,  which  has  been  forming  around 
the  edge,  is  pushed  into  the  middle,  and  more 
green  coal  added  around  the  outside. 

We  might  say  the  fire  is  made  up  of  three  parts: 
the  center  where  the  coke  is  forming  and  the  iron 
heating;  a  ring  around  and  next  to  this  center 
where  coke  is  forming;  and,  outside  of  this,  a  ring 
of  green  coal. 

This  is  the  ordinary  method  of  making  a  small 
fire. 

This  sort  of  fire  is  suitable  for  smaller  kinds  of 


4  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

work.  It  can  be  used  for  about  an  hour  or  two, 
at  the  end  of  which  time  it  should  be  cleaned. 
When  welding,  the  cleaning  should  be  done  much 
oftener. 

Large  Fires. — Larger  fires  are  sometimes  made 
as  follows:  Enough  coke  is  first  made  to  last  for 
several  hours  by  mounding  up  green  coal  over 
the  newly  started  fire  and  letting  it  burn  slowly 
to  coke  thoroughly.  This  coke  is  then  shoveled 
to  one  side  and  the  fire  again  started  in  the  follow- 
ing way:  A  large  block,  the  size  of  the  intended 
fire,  is  placed  on  top  of  the  tuyere  and  green  coal 
is  packed  down  hard  on  each  side,  forming  two 
mounds  of  closely  packed  coal.  The  block  is 
taken  out  and  the  fire  started  in  the  hole  between 
the  two  mounds,  coke  being  added  as  necessary. 
This  sort  of  a  fire  is  sometimes  called  a  stock  'fire, 
and  will  last  for  some  time.  The  mounds  keep 
the  fire  together  and  help  to  hold  in  the  heat. 

For  larger  work,  or  where  a  great  many  pieces 
are  to  be  heated  at  once,  or  when  a  very  even 
or  long-continued  heat  is  wanted,  a  furnace  is 
used.  For  furnace  use,  and  often  for  large  forge- 
fires,  the  coke  is  bought  ready-made. 

Banking  Fires.  -  -  When  a  forge-fire  is  left  it 
should  always  be  banked.  The  coke  should  be 
well  raked  up  together  into  a  mound  and  then 
covered  with  green  coal.  This  will  keep  the  fire 
alive  for  some  time  and  insure  plenty  of  good 
coke  for  starting  anew  when  it  does  die  out.  A 
still  better  method  to  follow,  when  it  is  desired 
to  keep  the  fire  for  some  time,  is  to  bury  a  block 


GENERAL   DESCRIPTION   OF   FORGE   AND   TOOLS.  5 

of  wood  in  the  center  of  the  fire  when  bank- 
ing it. 

Oxidizing  Fire.  —  When  the  blast  is  supplied 
from  a  power  fan,  or  blower,  the  beginner  generally 
tries  to  use  too  much  air  and  blow  the  fire  too  hard. 

Coal  requires  a  certain  amount  of  air  to  burn 
properly,  and  as  it  burns  it  consumes  the  oxygen 
from  the  air.  AVhen  too  much  blast  is  used  the 
oxygen  is  not  all  burned  out  of  the  air  and  will 
affect  the  heated  iron  in  the  fire.  Whenever  a 
piece  of  hot  iron  comes  in  contact  with  the  air  the 
oxygen  of  the  air  attacks  the  iron  and  forms  oxide. 
This  oxide  is  the  scale  which  is  seen  on  the  outside 
of  iron.  The  higher  the  temperature  to  which  the 
iron  is  heated,  the  more  easily  the  oxide  is  formed. 
When  welding,  particularly,  there  should  be  as 
little  scale,  or  oxide,  as  possible,  and  to  prevent  its 
formation  the  iron  should  not  be  heated  in  con- 
tact with  any  more  air  than  necessary.  Even  on 
an  ordinary  forging  this  scale  is  a  disadvantage, 
to  say  the  least,  as  it  must  be  cleaned  off,  and 
even  then  is  liable  to  leave  the  surface  of  the  work 
pitted  and  rough.  If  it  were  possible  to  keep  air 
away  from  the  iron  entirely,  no  trace  of  scale  would 
be  formed,  even  at  a  high  heat. 

If  just  enough  air  is  blown  into  the  fire  to  make 
it  burn  properly,  all  the  oxygen  will  be  burned 
out,  and  very  little,  if  any,  scale  will  be  formed 
while  heating.  On  the  other  hand,  if  too  much 
air  is  used,  the  oxygen  will  not  all  be  consumed 
and  this  unburned  oxygen  will  attack  the  iron 
and  form  scale.  This  is  known  as  "oxidizing"; 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


that  is,  when  too  much  air  is  admitted  to  the  fire 
the  surplus  oxygen  will  attack  the  iron,  forming 
"oxide,"  or  scale.  This  sort  of  a  fire  is  known  as 
an  "oxidizing"  fire  and  has  a  tendency  to  "oxidize" 
anything  heated  in  it. 

Anvil. — The  ordinary  anvil,  Fig.  i,  has  a  body 
of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  or  soft  steel,  with  a 
tool-steel  face  welded  on  and  hardened.  The 
hardened  steel  covers  just  the  top  face,  leaving 
the  horn  and  the  small  block  next  the  horn  of  the 
softer  material. 


FIG.  i. 

The  anvil  should  be  so  placed  that  as  the  work- 
man faces  it  the  horn  will  point  toward  his  left. 

The  square  hardie-hole  in  the  right-hand  end  of 
the  face  is  to  receive  and  hold  the  stems  of  hardies, 
swages,  etc. 

For  small  work  the  anvil  should  weigh  about 
150  Ibs. 

Hot  and  Cold  Chisels. — Two  kinds  of  chisels  are 
commonly  used  in  the  forge-shop:  one  for  cutting 


GENERAL   DESCRIPTION    OF    FORGE   AND    TOOLS. 


7 


cold  stock,  and  the  other  for  cutting  red-hot  metal. 
These  are  called  cold  and  hot  chisels. 

The  cold  chisel  is  generally  made  a  little  thicker 
in  the  blade  than  the  hot  chisel,  which  is  forged 
down  to  a  thin  edge. 

Fig.  2  shows  common  shapes  for  cold  and  hot 
chisels,  as  well  as  a  hardie,  another  tool  used  for 
cutting. 


HARDIE 


FIG.  2. 

Both  chisels  should  be  tempered  alike  when 
made. 

The  cold  chisel  holds  its  temper ;  but,  from  con- 
tact with  hot  metal,  the  hot  chisel  soon  has  its 
edge  softened.  For  these  reasons  the  two  chisels 
should  never  be  used  in  place  of  each  other,  for  by 
using  the  cold  chisel  on  hot  work  the  temper  is 
drawn  and  the  edge  left  too  soft  for  cutting  cold 
metal,  while  the  hot  chisel  soon  becomes  so  soft 
that  if  used  in  place  of  the  cold  it  will  have  its 
edge  turned  and  ruined. 

It  would  seem  that  it  is  useless  to  temper  a  hot 
chisel,  as  the  heated  work,  with  which  the  chisel 


8 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


comes  in  contact,  so  soon  draws  the  temper.  When 
the  chisel  is  tempered,  however,  the  steel  is  left  in 
a  much  better  condition  even  after  being  affected 
by  hot  metal  on  which  it  is  used  than  it  would 
be  if  the  chisel  were  made  untempered. 

Grinding  Chisels. — It  is  very  important  to  have 
the  chisels,  particularly  cold  chisels,  ground  cor- 
rectly, and  the  following  directions  should  be 
carefully  followed. 

The  sides  of  a  cold  chisel  should  be  ground  to 
form  an  angle  of  about  60°  with  each  other,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  makes  an  angle  blunt 


FIG.  3. 

enough  to  wear  well,   and  also  sharp  enough  to 
cut  well. 

The  cutting  edge  should  be  ground  convex, 
or  curving  outward,  as  at  B.  This  prevents  the 
corners  from  breaking  off.  When  the  edge  of  the 
chisel  is  in  this  shape,  the  strain  of  cutting  tends 
to  "force  the  corners  back  against  the  solid  metal 


GENERAL   DESCRIPTION   OF   FORGE   AND   TOOLS.  Q 

in  the  central  part  of  the  tool.  If  the  edge  were 
made  concave,  like  C,  the  strain  would  tend  to 
force  the  corners  outward  and_snap  them  off.  The 
arrows  on  B  and  C  indicate  the  direction  of  these 
forces. 

Hot  chisels  should  be  ground  sharper.  The 
sides  should  be  ground  at  an  angle  of  about  30° 
instead  of  60°. 

Another  tool  used  for  cutting  is  the  hardie.  This 
takes  the  place  of  the  cold  or  hot  chisel.  It  has  a 
stem  fitted  to  the  square  hole  in  the  right-hand  end 
of  the  anvil  face,  this  stem  holding  the  hardie  in 
place  when  in  use. 

Cutting  Stock. — When  soft  steel  and  wrought -iron 
bars  are  cut  with  a  cold  chisel  the  method  should 
be  about  as  follows:  First  cut  about  one-fourth 
of  the  way  through  the  bar  on  one  side;  then 
make  a  cut  across  each  edge  at  the  ends  of  the 
first  cut;  turn  the  bar  over  and  cut  across  the 
second  side  about  one-fourth  the  way  through; 
tilt  the  bar  slightly,  with  the  cut  resting  on  the 
outside  corner  of  the  anvil,  and  by  striking  a  sharp 
blow  with  the  sledge  on  the  projecting  end,  the 
piece  can  generally  be  easily  broken  off. 

Chisels  should  always  be  kept  carefully  ground 
and  sharp. 

A  much  easier  way  of  cutting  stock  is  to  use 
bar  shears,  but  these  are  not  always  at  hand. 

The  edge  of  a  chisel  should  never  under  any  circum- 
stances be  driven  clear  through  the  stock  and  allowed 
to  come  in  contact  with  the  hard  face  of  the  anv.il. 

Sometimes  when  trimming  thin  stock  it  is  con- 


IO  FORCE-PRACTICE. 

venient  to  cut  clear  through  the  piece;  in  this 
case  the  cutting  should  be  done  either  on  the  horn, 
the  soft  block  next  the  horn,  or  the  stock  to  be 
cut  should  be  backed  up  with  some  soft  metal. 
An  easy  way  to  do  this  is  to  cut  a  wide  strip  of 
stock  about  two  inches  longer  than  the  width  of 
the  face  of  the  anvil,  and  bend  the  ends  down  to 
fit  over  the  sides  of  the  anvil.  The  cutting  may 
be  done  on  this  without  injury  to  the  edge  of  the 
chisel.  It  is  very  convenient  to  have  one  of  these 
strips  always  at  hand  for  use  when  trimming  thin 
work  with  a  hot  chisel. 

The  author  has  seen  a  copper  block  used  for 
this  same  purpose.  The  block 
was  formed  like  Fig.  4,  the  stem 
being  shaped  to  fit  into  the  hardic- 
hole  of  the  anvil.  This  block  was 
designed  for  use  principally  when 
FIG.  4.  trimming  thin  parts  of  heated 

work  with  a  hot   chisel. 

Care  should  always  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
work  rests  flat  on  the  anvil  or  block  when 
cutting.  The  work  should  be  supported  directly 
underneath  the  point  where  the  cutting  is  to  be 
done;  and  the  solider  the  support,  the  easier  the 
cutting. 

Hammers. — Various  shapes  and  sizes  of  hammers 
are  used,  but  the  commonest,  and  most  convenient 
for  ordinary  use,  is  the  ball  pene-hammer  shown  in 

Fig.  5- 

Tlie  large  end  is  used  for  ordinary  work,  and 
the  small  ball  end,  or  pene,  for  riveting,  scarfing, 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION   OF   FORGE   AND    TOOLS. 


II 


etc.  These  hammers  vary  in  weight  from  a  few 
ounces  up  to  several  pounds.  For  ordinary  use 
about  a  i^-  or  2 -pound  hammer  is  used. 

Several  other  types  in  ordinary  use  are  illustrated 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


in  Fig.  6.  A  is  a  straight-pene ;  B,  a  cross-pene; 
and  C,  a  riveting-hammer. 

Sledges. — Very  light  sledges  are  sometimes  made 
the  same  shape  as  ball-pene  hammers.  They  are 
used  for  light  tool-work  and  boiler-work. 

Fig.  7  illustrates  a  common  shape  for  sledges. 
This  is  a  double-faced  sledge. 


FIG.  7. 

Sledges  are  also  made  with  a  cross-pene  or  straight- 
pene,  as  shown  in  Fig.  8. 


12 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


For  ordinary  work  a  sledge  should  weigh  about 
10  or  12  Ibs. ;  for  heavy  work,  from  16  to  20. 

Sledges  for  light  work  weigh  about  5  or  6  Ibs. 

Tongs. — Tongs  are  made  in  a  wide  variety  of 
shapes  and  sizes,  depending  upon  the  work  they 
are  intended  to  hold.  Three  of  the  more  ordinary 
shapes  are  illustrated. 

The  ordinary  straight-jawed  tongs  are  shown  in 
Fig.  9.  They  are  used  for  holding  flat  iron.  For 
holding  round  iron  the  jaws  are  grooved  or  bent 
to  the  shape  of  the  piece  to  be  held. 

Fig.  10  shows  a  pair  of  bolt- tongs.  These  tongs 
are  used  for  holding  bolts  or  pieces  which  are  larger 
on  the  end  than  through  the  body,  and  are  so 
shaped  that  the  tongs  do  not  touch  the  enlarged  end 
when  the  jaws  grip  the  body  of  the  work. 


FIG.  9. 


FIG.  jo. 


FIG.  ii. 


Pick-up  tongs,  Fig.  n,  are  used  for  handling 
small  pieces,  tempering,  etc.,  but  are  very  seldom 
used  for  holding  work  while  forging. 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    FORGE    AXD    TOOLS.  13 

Fitting  Tongs  to  Work. — Tongs  should  always  be 
carefully  fitted  to  the  work  they  are  intended  to 
hold. 

Tongs  which  fit  the  work  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  12  should  not  be  used  until  more  carefully 
fitted.  In  the  first  case  shown,  the  jaws  are  too 
close  together;  and  in  the  second  case,  too  far 
apart. 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 

When  properly  fitted,  the  jaws  should  touch 
the  work  the  entire  length,  as  illustrated  in  Fig. 
13.  With  properly  fitted  tongs  the  work  may  be 
held  firmly,  but  if  fitted  as  shown  in  Fig.  12  there 
is  always  a  very  "wobbly"  action  between  the 
jaws  and  the  work. 

To  fit  a  pair  of  tongs  to  a  piece  of  work,  the  jaws 
should  be  heated  red-hot,  the  piece  to  be  held 
placed  between  them,  and  the  jaws  closed  down 
tight  around  the  piece  with  a  hammer.  To  pre- 
vent the  handles  from  being  brought  too  close 
together  while  the  tongs  are  being  fitted,  a  short 
piece  of  stock  should  be  held  between  them  just 


14  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

back  of  the  jaws.  If  the  handles  are  too  far  apart, 
a  few  blows  just  back  of  the  eye  will  close  them  up. 

Flatter — Set-hammer — Swage  Fuller  —Swage-block. 
— Among  the  commonest  tools  used  in  forge-work 
are  the  ones  mentioned  above. 

The  flatter,  Fig.  14,  as  its  name  implies,  is  used 
for  flattening  and  smoothing  straight  surfaces. 

The  face  of  the  flatter  is  generally  from  2  inches 
to  3  inches  square,  and  should  be  kept  perfectly 
smooth  with  the  edges  slightly  rounding. 


FIG.  14.  FIG.  15. 

Fig.  15  shows  a  set-hammer.  This  is  used  for 
finishing  parts  which  cannot  be  reached  with  the 
flatter,  up  into  corners,  and  work  of  that  character. 
The  face  of  this  tool  also  should  be  smooth  and 
flat,  with  the  corners  more  or  less  rounded,  depend- 
ing on  the  work  it  is  intended  to  do. 

Set-hammers  for  small  work  should  be  about 
i  or  i^  inches  square  on  the  face. 

"Set-hammer"  is  a  name  which  is  sometimes 
given  to  almost  any  tool  provided  with  a  handle, 
which  tool  in  use  is  held  in  place  and  struck  with 
another  hammer.  Thus,  flatters,  swages,  fullers, 
etc.,  are  sometimes  classed  under  the  general  name 
of  set-hammers. 


GENERAL    DESCRIPTION    OF    FORGE    AND    TOOLS.  15 

Fullers,  Fig.  16,  are  used  for  finishing  up  filleted 
corners,  forming  grooves,  and  for  numerous  pur- 
poses which  will  be  given  more  in  detail  later. 

They  are  made  in  a  variety  of  sizes,  the  size 
being  determined  by  the  shape  of  the  edge  A. 
On  a  %  inch  fuller  this  edge  would  be  a  half -circle 
^  inch  in  diameter ;  on  a  f  inch  it  would  be  f  inch 
in  diameter,  etc. 

Fullers  are  made  "top"  and  "bottom."  The 
one  shown  \vith  a  handle  is  a  "top"  fuller,  and 
the  lower  one  in  the  illustration  is  a  "bottom" 
fuller  and  has  the  stem  forged  to  fit  into  the  square 
hardie-hole  of  the  anvil.  This  stem  should  be  a 
loose  fit  in  the  hardie-hole.  Tools  of  this  character 
should  never  be  used  on  an  anvil  where  they  fit 
so  tightly  that  it  is  necessary  to  drive  them  into 
place. 

A  top  and  bottom  swage  is  shown  in  Fig.  17. 
The  swages  shown  here  are  for  finishing  round 


FIG.  16. 


FIG.  18. 


FIG.  17. 

work;   but  swages  are  made  to  be  used  for  other 
shapes  as  well. 


1 6  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Swages  are  sized  according  to  the  shape  they  are 
made  to  fit.  A  i-inch  round  swage,  for  instance, 
is  made  to  fit  a  circle  i  inch  in  diameter,  and  would 
be  used  for  finishing  work  of  that  size. 

All  of  the  above  tools  are  made  of  low-carbon 
tool  steel. 

A  swage-block  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  These  blocks 
are  made  in  a  variety  of  shapes;  the  illustration 
showing  a  common  form  for  general  use.  This 
block  is  made  of  cast  iron  and  is  about  3^  inches 
thick.  It  has  a  wide  range  of  uses  and  is  very 
convenient  for  general  work,  where  it  takes  the 
place  of  a  good  many  special  tools. 


CHAPTER  II. 

WELDING. 

Welding-heat. — A  piece  of  wrought  iron  or  mild 
steel,  when  heated,  as  the  temperature  increases 
becomes  softer  and  softer  until  at  last  a  heat  is 
reached  at  which  the  iron  is  so  soft  that  if  another 
piece  of  iron  heated  to  the  same  point  touches  it, 
the  two  will  stick  together.  The  heat  at  which 
the  two  pieces  will  stick  together  is  known  as  the 
welding-heat.  If  the  iron  is  heated  much  beyond 
this  point,  it  will  burn.  All  metals  cannot  be  welded 
(in  the  sense  in  which  the  term  is  ordinarily  used). 
Some,  when  heated,  remain  very  dense  and  retain 
almost  their  initial  hardness  until  a  certain  heat 
is  reached,  when  a  very  slight  rise  of  temperature 
will  cause  them  to  either  crumble  or  melt.  Only 
those  metals  which,  as  the  temperature  is  increased, 
become  gradually  softer,  passing  slowly  from  the 
solid  to  the  liquid  state,  can  be  welded  easily. 
Metals  of  this  kind  just  before  melting  become 
soft  and  more  or  less  pasty,  and  it  is  in  this  con- 
dition that  they  are  most  weldable.  The  greater 
the  range  of  temperature  through  which  the  metal 
remains  pasty  the  more  easily  may  it  be  welded. 

In  nearly  all  welding  the  greatest  trouble  is  in 
heating  the  metal  properly.  The  fire  must  be  clean 

17 


1 8  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

and  bright  or  the  result  will  be  a  "dirty"  heat; 
that  is,  small  pieces  of  cinder  and  other  dirt  will 
stick  to  the  metal,  get  in  between  the  two  pieces, 
and  make  a  bad  weld. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  used  in  welding ;  if  the 
pieces  are  too  cold  they  will  not  stick,  and  no 
amount  of  hammering  will  weld  them.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  they  are  kept  in  the  fire  too  long 
and  heated  to  too  high  a  temperature  they  will 
be  burned,  and  burned  iron  is  absolutely  worthless. 

The  heating  must  be  done  slowly  enough  to 
insure  the  work  heating  evenly  all  the  way  through. 
If  heated  too  rapidly,  the  outside  may  be  at  the 
proper  heat  while  the  interior  metal  is  much  colder ; 
and,  as  soon  as  taken  from  the  fire,  this  cooler 
metal  on  the  inside  and  the  air  almost  instantly 
cool  the  surface  to  be  welded  below  the  welding 
temperature,  and  it  will  be  too  cold  to  weld  by 
the  time  any  work  can  be  done  on  it. 

If  the  pieces  are  properly  heated  (when  welding 
wrought  iron  or  mild  steel),  they  will  feel  sticky 
when  brought  in  contact. 

When  welding,  it  is  best  to  be  sure  that  every- 
thing is  ready  before  the  iron  is  taken  from  the 
fire.  All  the  tools  should  be  so  placed  that  they 
may  be  picked  up  without  looking  to  see  where 
they  are.  The  face  of  the  anvil  should  be  perfectly 
clean,  and  the  hammer  in  such  a  position  that  it 
will  not  be  knocked  out  of  the  way  when  the  work 
is  placed  on  the  anvil  for  welding. 

All  the  tools  being  in  place,  and  the  iron  brought 
to  the  proper  heat,  the  tongs  should  be  held  in 


WELDING.  ig 

such  a  way  that  the  pieces  can  be  easily  placed  in 
position  for  welding  without  changing  the  grip  or 
letting  go  of  them ;  then,  when  .everything  is  ready, 
the  blast  should  be  shut  off,  the  pieces  taken  from 
the  fire,  placed  together  on  the  anvil,  and  welded 
together  with  rapid  blows  of  the  hammer,  welding 
(after  the  pieces  are  once  stuck  together)  the 
thin  parts  first,  as  these  are  the  parts  which 
naturally  cool  the  quickest. 

Burning  Iron  or  Steel. — The  statement  that  iron 
can  be  burned  seems  to  the  beginner  to  be  rather 
exaggerated.  The  truth  of  this  can,  however,  be 
very  easily  shown.  If  a  bar  of  iron  be  heated  in  the 
forge  and  considerable  blast  turned  on,  the  bar  will 
grow  hotter  and  hotter,  until  at  last  sparks  will  be 
seen  coming  from  the  fire.  These  sparks,  which  are 
quite  unlike  the  ordinary  ones  from  the  fire,  are 
white  and  seem  to  explode  and  form  little  white 
stars. 

These  sparks  are  small  particles  of  burning  iron 
which  have  been  blown  upward  out  of  the  fire. 

The  same  sparks  may  be  made  by  dropping  fine 
iron-filings  into  a  gas-flame,  or  by  burning  a  piece 
of  oily  waste  which  has  been  used  for  wiping  up 
iron-filings. 

If  the  bar  of  iron  be  taken  from  the  fire  at  the 
time  these  sparks  appear,  the  end  of  the  bar  will 
seem  white  and  sparkling,  with  sparks,  like  stars 
similar  to  those  in  the  fire,  coming  from  it.  If  the 
heating  be  continued  long  enough,  the  end  of  the 
bar  will  be  partly  consumed,  forming  lumps  similar 
to  the  "clinkers"  taken  from  a  coal  fire. 


2O  FORGE- PRACTICE. 

f"  To  burn  iron  two  things  are  necessary:  a  high 
enough  heat,  and  the  presence  of  oxygen. 

As  noted  before,  when  welding,  care  must  be 
taken  not  to  have  too  much  air  going  through  the 
fire;  in  other  words,  not  to  have  an  oxidizing  fire. 

If  the  fire  is  not  an  oxidizing  one,  there  is  not  so 
much  danger  of  injury  to  the  iron  by  burning  and 
the  forming  of  scale. 

Iron  which  has  been  overheated  and  partially 
burned  has  a  rough,  spongy  appearance  and  is 
brittle  and  crumbly. 

Use  of  Fluxes  in  Welding. — When  a  piece  of  iron 
or  steel  is  heated  for  welding  under  ordinary  con- 
ditions the  outside  is  oxidized;  that  is,  a  thin  film 
of  iron  oxide  is  formed.  This  oxide  is  the  black 
scale  which  is  continually  falling  from  heated  iron 
and  is  formed  when  heated  iron  is  brought  in  contact 
with  the  air.  This  oxide  of  iron  is  not  fluid  except 
at  a  very  high  heat,  and,  if  allowed  to  stay  on  the 
iron,  will  prevent  a  good  weld. 

When  welding  without  a  flux  the  iron  is  brought 
to  a  high  enough  heat  to  melt  the  oxide,  which  is 
forced  from  between  the  welding  pieces  by  the 
blows  of  the  hammer. 

This  heat  may  easily  be  taken  when  welding 
ordinary  iron;  but  when  working  with  some  ma- 
chine-steel, and  particularly  tool-steel,  the  metal 
cannot  be  heated  to  a  high  enough  temperature 
to  melt  the  oxide  without  burning  the  steel. 

From  the  above  it  would  seem  impossible  to  weld 
steel,  as  it  cannot  be  heated  under  ordinary  condi- 
tions without  oxidizing,  but  by  the  use  of  a  flux 


WELDING.  21 

this  difficulty  may  be  overcome  and  the  oxide 
melted  at  a  lower  temperature. 

The  flux  (sand  and  borax  are  the  most  common) 
should  be  sprinkled  on  the  part  of  the  piece  to  be 
welded  when  it  has  reached  about  a  yellow  heat, 
and  the  heating  continued  until  the  metal  is  at  a 
proper  temperature  to  be  soft  enough  to  weld,  but 
care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  flux  covers 
the  parts  to  be  welded  together. 

The  flux  has  a  double  action;  in  the  first  place, 
as  it  melts  it  flows  over  the  piece  and  forms  a 
protecting  covering  wilich  prevents  oxidation, 
and  also  when  raised  to  the  proper  heat  dissolves 
the  oxide  that  has  already  formed. 

The  oxide  melts  at  a  much  lower  heat  when 
combined  with  the  flux  than  without  it,  and  to 
melt  the  oxide  is  the  principal  use  of  the  flux.  The 
metal  when  heated  in  contact  with  the  flux  becomes 
soft  and  "weldable"  at  a  lower  temperature  than 
when  without  it. 

Ordinary  borax  contains  water  which  causes  it 
to  bubble  up  when  heated.  If  the  heating  is  con- 
tinued at  a  high  temperature,  the  borax  melts 
and  runs  like  water;  this  melted  borax,  when 
cooled,  is  called  borax-glass. 

Borax  for  welding  is  sometimes  fused  as  above 
and  then  powdered  for  use. 

Sal  ammoniac  mixed  with  borax  seems  to  clean 
the  surface  better  than  borax  alone.  A  flux  made 
of  one  part  of  sal  ammoniac  and  four  parts  borax 
works  well,  particularly  when  welding  tool-steel, 
and  is  a  little  better  than  borax  alone. 


22  FORGE-PR  ACTIC'K. 

Most  patented  welding  compounds  have  boi\v: 
as  a  basis,  and  are  very  little,  if  any,  better 
than  the  ordinary  mixture  given  above. 

The  flux  does  not  in  any  way  stick  the  pieces 
together  or  act  as  a  cement  or  glue.  Its  use  is 
principally  to  help  melt  the  oxide  already  formed 
and  to  prevent  the  formation  of  more. 

Iron  filings  are  sometimes  mixed  with  borax  and 
used  as  a  flux. 

When  using  a  flux  the  work  should  always  be 
scarfed  the  same  as  when  no  flux  is  used.  The 
pieces  can  be  welded,  however,  at  a  lower 
heat. 

Fagot  or  Pile  Welding. — When  a  large  forging 
is  to  be  made  of  wrought  iron,  small  pieces  of 
"scrap"  iron  (old  horseshoes,  bolts,  nuts,  etc.) 
are  placed  together  in  a  square  or  rectangular 
pile  on  a  board,  bound  together  with  wire,  heated 
to  welding  heat  in  a  furnace,  and  welded  together 
into  one  solid  lump,  and  the  forging  made  from 
this.  If  there  is  not  enough  metal  in  one  lump, 
several  are  made  in  this  way  and  afterward  welded 
to  each  other — making  one  large  piece.  This  is 
known  as  fagot  or  pile  welding. 

Sand  is  used  for   fluxing  to  a 
large  extent  on  work  of  this  kind. 
Sometimes  a  small  fagot  weld 
is  made  by  laying  two  or  more 
pieces  together  and  welding  them 
their  entire  length,  or  one  piece 
may  be  doubled  together  several 
times  and  welded  into   a   lump.      Such  a  weld  is 


WELDING.  23 

shown  in    Fig.    19,    which   shows    the  piece  before 
welding  and  also  after  being  welded  and  shaped. 

Scarfing. — In  a  fagot  weld  the  pieces  are  not 
prepared  or  shaped  for  each  other,  being  simply  laid 
together  and  welded,  but  for  most  welding  the 
ends  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined  should  be  so  shaped 
that  they  will  fit  together  and  form  a  smooth 
joint  when  welded.  This  is  called  scarfing.  It 
is  very  important  that  the  scarfing  be  properly 
done,  as  a  badly  shaped  scarf  will  probably  spoil 
the  weld.  For  instance,  if  an  attempt  be  made 
to  weld  two  bars  together  simply  by  overlapping 
their  ends,  as  in  Fig.  20,  the  weld  when  finished 
would  be  something  like  Fig.  21.  Each  bar  would 


FIG.  20. 


FIG.  21. 

be  forged  into  the  other  and  leave  a  small  crack 
where  the  end  came.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
ends  of  the  bars  were  properly  scarfed  or  pointed, 
they  could  be  welded  together  and  leave  no  mark — 
making  a  smooth  joint. 

Lap-welds  are  sometimes  made  without  scarf- 
ing when  manufacturing  many  pieces  alike,  but 
this  should  not  be  attempted  in  ordinary  work. 


24  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Lap-weld  Scarf. — In  preparing  for  the  lap-weld, 
the  ends  of  the  pieces  to  be  welded  should  be  first 
upset  until  they  are  considerably  thicker  than  the 
rest  of  the  bar.  This  is  done  to  allow  for  the 
iron  which  burns  off,  or  is  lost  by  scaling,  and 
also  to  allow  for  the  hammering  which  must  be 
done  when  welding  the  pieces  together.  To  make 
a  proper  weld  the  joint  should  be  well  hammered 
together,  and  as  this  reduces  the  size  of  the  iron 
at  that  point  the  pieces  must  be  upset  to  allow 
for  this  reduction  in  size  in  order  to  have  the  weld 
the  same  size  as  the  bar. 

If  the  ends  are  not  upset  enough  in  the  first 
place,  it  requires  considerable  hard  work  to  upset 
the  weld  after  they  are  joined  together.  Too 
much  upsetting  does  no  harm,  and  the  extra 
metal  is  very  easily  worked  into  shape.  To  be  on 
the  safe  side  it  is  better  to  upset  a  little  more  than 
is  absolutely  necessary — it  may  save  considerable 
work  afterwards. 

If  more  than  one  heating  will  be  necessary  to 
make  a  weld,  the  iron  should  be  upset  just  that 
much  more  to  allow  for  the  extra  waste  due  to 
the  second  or  third  heating. 

Flat  Lap-weld. — The  lap-weld  is  the  weld  ordinarily 
used  to  join  flat  or  round  bars  of  iron  together 
end  to  end. 

Following  is  a  description  of  a  flat  lap-weld: 
The  ends  of  the  pieces  to  be  joined  must  be  first 
upset.  When  heating  for  upsetting  heat  only  the 
end  as  shown  in  Fig.  22,  where  the  shaded  part 
indicates  the  hotter  metal.  To  heat  this  way 


WELDING. 


place  only  the  extreme  end  of  the  bar  in  the  fire, 
so  the  heat  will  not  run  back"  too  far.  The  end 
should  be  upset  until  it  looks  about  like  Fig.  23. 


FIG.  22. 


FIG.  23. 


When  starting  to  shape  the  scarf  use  the  round 
or  pene  end  of  the  hammer.  Do  not  strike  directly 
down  on  the  work,  but  let  the  blows  come  at  an 
angle  of  about  45  degrees  and  in  such  a  way  as  to 
force  the  metal  back  toward  the  base  as  shown  in  Fig. 


FIG.  24. 


FIG.  25. 


24.  This  drives  the  metal  back  and  makes  a  sort  of 
thick  ridge  at  the  beginning  of  the  scarf.  In 
finishing  the  scarf,  use  the  flat  face  of  the  hammer, 
and  bring  the  piece  to  the  very  edge  of  the  anvil, 
as  in  this  way  a  hard  blow  may  be  struck  without 
danger  of  hitting  the  anvil  instead  of  the  work. 
The  proper  position  is  shown  in  Fig.  25. 

The  scarfs  should  be  shaped  as  in  Fig.  26,  leav- 
ing them  slightly  convex  and  not  concave,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  27. 


26  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  if  the  scarfed  ends  be 
concave  when  the  two  pieces   are  put  together,  a 

C 


FIG.  26.  FIG.  27. 

small  pocket  or  hollow  will  be  left  between  them, 
the  scarfs  touching  only  the  edges.  When  the 
weld  is  hammered  together,  these  edges  being  in 
contact  will  naturally  weld  first,  closing  up  all 
outlet  to  the  pocket.  As  the  surface  of  the  scarf 
is  more  or  less  covered  with  melted  scale  and 
other  impurities,  some  of  this  will  be  held  in  the 
pocket  and  make  a  bad  place  in  the  weld.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  the  scarfs  are  convex,  the  metal 
will  first  stick  in  the  very  center  of  the  scarf,  forc- 
ing out  the  melted  scale  at  the  sides  of  the  joint 
as  the-  hammering  continues. 

The  length  of  the  scarf  should  be  about  i£  times 
the  thickness  of  the  bar;  thus  on  a  bar  \"  thick 
the  scarf  should  be  about  f "  long. 

The  width  of  the  end  A  should  be  slightly  less 
than  the  width  B  of  the  bar.  In  welding  the  two 
pieces  together,  the  first  piece  should  be  placed 
scarf  side  up  on  the  anvil,  and  the  second  piece 
laid  on  top,  scarf  side  down,  in  such  a  way  that 
the  thin  edges  of  the  second  piece  will  lap  over 
the  thick  ridge  C  on  the  first  piece  as  shown  in 
Fig.  28.  The  piece  which  is  laid  on  top  should 
be  held  by  the  smith  doing  the  welding,  the  other 
may  be  handled  by  the  helper. 


WELDING. 


The  helper  should  place  his  piece  in  position 
on  the  anvil  first.  As  it  is  ralher  hard  to  lay  the 
other  piece  directly  on  top  of  this  and  place  it 
exactly  in  the  right  position,  it  is  better  to  rest 
the  second  piece  on  the  corner  of  the  anvil  as 


FIG.  28. 


FIG.  29. 


shown  at  A,  Fig.  29,  and  thus  guide  it  into  position. 
In  this  way  the  piece  may  be  steadied  and  placed 
on  the  other  in  the  right  position  without  any 
loss  of  time. 

When  heating  for  a  lap-weld,  or  for  that  matter 
any  weld  where  two  pieces  are  joined  together, 
great  care  should  be  taken  to  bring  both  pieces 
to  the  same  heat  at  the  same  time.  If  one  piece 
heats  faster  than  the  other,  it  should  be  taken 
from  the  fire  and  allowed  to  cool  until  the  other 
piece  "catches  up"  with  it.  It  requires  some 
practice  to  so  place  the  pieces  in  the  fire  that  they 
will  be  heated  uniformly  and  equally.  The  tips 
particularly  must  be  watched,  and  it  may  be 
necessary  to  cool  them  from  time  to  time  in  the 
water-bucket  to  prevent  the  extreme  ends  from 
burning  off. 

The  fire  must  be  clean,  and  the  heating  should  be 
done  slowly  in  order  to  insure  its  being  done  evenly. 

Just  before  taking  the  pieces  from  the  fire  they 


28  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

should  be  turned  scarf  side  down  for  a  short  time, 
to  be  sure  that  the  surfaces  to  be  joined  will  be  hot. 
More  blast  should  be  used  at  the  last  moment 
than  when  starting  to  heat. 

The  only  way  to  know  how  this  heating  is  going 
on  is  to  take  the  pieces  from  the  fire  from  time 
to  time  and  look  at  them.  The  color  grows  lighter 
as  the  temperature  increases,  until  finally,  when 
the  welding  heat  is  reached,  the  iron  will  seem 
almost  white.  The  exact  heat  can  only  be  learned 
by  experience;  but  the  workman  should  recognize 
it  after  a  little  practice  as  soon  as  he  sees  it. 

To  get  an  indication  of  the  heat,  which  will  help 
sometimes,  watch  the  sparks  that  come  from  the 
fire.  When  the  little,  white,  explosive  sparks 
come  they  show  that  some  of  the  iron  has  been 
heated  hot  enough  to  be  melted  off  in  small  particles 
and  is  burning.  This  serves  as  a  rough  indication 
that  the  iron  is  somewhere  near  the  welding  heat. 
This  should  never  be  relied  on  entirely,  as  the 
condition  of  the  fire  has  much  to  do  with  their 
appearance. 

Round  Lap-weld. — The  round  lap-weld — the  weld 
used  to  join  round  bars  end  to  end — is  made  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  ordinary  or  flat  lap- 
weld.  The  directions  given  for  making  the  flat 
weld  apply  to  the  round  lap  as 
well,  excepting  that  the  scarf 
is  slightly  different  in  shape. 
The  proper  shape  of  scarf  is 
shown  in  Fig.  30,  which  gives 
the  top  and  side  views  of  the  piece.  One  side  is 


WELDING.  29 

left  straight,  the  other  three  sides  tapering  in 
to  meet  it  in  a  point.  The  length  of  the  scarf 
should  be  about  one  and  one-half  times  the 
diameter  of  the  bar.  Always  be  sure,  particularly 
in  small  work,  that  the  pieces  are  scarfed  to  a 
point,  and  not  merely  flattened  out.  The  greatest 
difficulty  with  this  weld  is  to  have  the  points  of 
the  pieces  well  welded,  as  they  cool  very  rapidly 
after  leaving  the  fire.  The  first  blows,  after  stick- 
ing the  pieces  together,  should  cover  the  points. 
The  weld  should  be  made  square  at  first  and  then 
rounded.  The  weld  is  not  so  apt  to  split  while 
being  hammered  if  welded  square  and  then  worked 
round,  as  it  would  be  if  hammered  round  at  first. 

If  the  scarf  were  made  wide  on  the  end  like 
the  ordinary  lap-weld,  it  would  be  necessary  to 
hammer  clear  around  the  bar  in  order  to  close 
down  the  weld;  but  with  the  pointed  scarf,  one 
blow  on  each  point  will  stick  the  work  in  place, 
making  it  much  more  quickly  handled. 

Ring  Weld,  Round  Stock.  A  ring  formed  from 
round  stock  may  be  made  in  two  ways;  that  is, 
by  scarfing  before  or  after  bending  into  shape. 
When  scarfed  before  bending,  the  length  of  stock 
should  be  carefully  calculated,  a  small  amount 


FIG.  31. 

being    added  for  welding,  and  the  ends  upset  and 
scarfed  exactly  the  same  as  for  a  round  lap-weld, 


FORGE  PRACTICE. 


Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  scarfs  come 
on  opposite  sides  of  the  piece. 

Fig.  31  shows  a  piece  of  stock  scarfed  ready  for 
bending. 

After   scarfing,  the    piece    should    be  bent    into 

a  ring  and  welded,  care 
being  taken  when  bend- 
ing to  see  that  the  points 
of  the  scarf  lie  as  indi- 
cated at  A,  Fig.  32,  and 
not  as  shown  at  B. 

When  the  points  of 
the  scarfs  are  lapped  as 
shown  at  A,  most  of  the 
welding  may  be  done 
while  the  ring  lies  flat  on 
the  anvil,  the  shaping 
being  finished  over  the 
FIG.  32.  horn.  If  the  points  are 

lapped  the  other  way,  B,  the  welding  also  must 
be  done  over  the  horn,  making  it  much  more  awk- 
ward to  handle. 

The  second  way  of  welding  the  ring  is  practically 
the  same  as  that  of  making  a  chain  link,  and  the 
same  description  of  scarfing  will  answer  for  both, 
the  stock  being  cut  and  bent  into  a  ring,  with  the 
ends  a  little  distance  apart;  these  ends  are  then 
scarfed  the  same  as  described  below  for  a  link 
scarf  and  welded  in  exactly  the  same  manner 
as  described  for  making  the  other  ring. 

Chain-making. — -The  first  step  in  making  a  link 
is  to  bend  the  iron  into  a  U-shaped  piece,  being 


WELDING.  3 1 

careful  to  keep  the  legs  of  the  U  exactly  even  in 
length.  The  piece  should  be  gripped  at  the  lower 
end  of  the  U,  the  two  ends  brought  to  a  high  heat, 
scarfed,  bent  into  shape  together,  reheated,  and 
welded. 

To  scarf  the  piece  place  one  end  of  the  U  on  the 
anvil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  33,  and  strike  one  blow  on 
it ;  move  it  a  short  distance  in  the  direction  shown 
by  the  arrow  and  strike  another  blow.  This 
should  be  continued  until  the  edge  or  corner  of 
the  piece  is  reached,  moving  it  after  each  blow. 


FIG.  33.  FIG.  34. 

This  operation  leaves  a  series  of  little  steps  on 
the  end  of  the  piece,  and  works  it  out  in  a  more 
or  less  pointed  shape,  as  shown  in  Fig.  34. 

This  scarf  may  be  finished  by  being  brought 
more  to  a  point  by  a  few  blows  over  the  horn  of 
the  anvil.  The  ends  should  then  be  bent  together 
and  welded.  Fig.  35  shows  the  steps  in  making 
the  link  and  two  views  of  the  finished  link.  The 
link  is  sometimes  left  slightly  thicker  through 
the  weld.  A  second  link  is  made — all  but  welding — 
spread  open,  and  the  first  link  put  on  it,  closed 
up  again,  and  welded.  A  third  is  joined  to  this 
etc. 

When  made  on  a  commercial  scale,  the  links  are 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


not  scarfed  but  bent  together  and  welded  in  one 
heat. 


FIG.  35. 
Ring,  or  Band. — A  method  of  making  a  ring  from 


FIG.  36. 

flat  iron  is  shown  in   Fig.    36,   which  shows  the 
stock  before  and  after  bending  into  shape. 


WELDING.  33 

The  stock  is  cut  to  the  correct  length,  upset, 
and  scarfed  exactly  the  same  as  for  a  flat  lap-weld. 
The  piece  is  bent  into  shape  and  welded  over  the 
horn  of  the  anvil.  The  ring  must  be  heated  for 
welding  very  carefully  or  the  outside  lap  will 
burn  before  the  inside  is  hot  enough  to  weld. 

In  scarfing  this — as  in  making  other  rings — care 
must  be  taken  to  have  the  scarfs  come  on  opposite 
sides  of  the  tock. 

Washer,  or  Flat  Ring.  —  In  this  weld  flat  stock 
is  used  bent  edgewise  into  a  ring  without  any 
preparation.  The  corners  of  the  ends  are  trimmed 
off  parallel  after  the  stock  is  bent  as  shown  in 
Fig-  37- 


FIG.  37.  FIG.  38. 

After  trimming  the  ends  are  scarfed  with  a 
fuller  or  pene  end  of  a  hammer  and  lapped  ready 
for  welding  (Fig.  38). 

When  heating  for  welding,  the  ring  should  be 
turned  over  several  times  to  insure  uniformity  in 
heating. 

If  the  work  is  particular,  the  ends  of  the  stock 
should  be  upset  somewhat  before  bending  into 
shape. 


34  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Butt-weld.  —  This  is  a  weld  where  the  pieces 
are  butted  together  without  any  slanting  scarfs, 
leaving  a  square  joint  through  the  weld. 

When  two  pieces  are  so  welded  the  ends  should 
be  slightly  rounded,  simillar  to  Fig.  39,  which 
shows  two  pieces  ready  for  welding.  If  the  ends 
are  convex  as  shown,  the  scale  and  other  impurity 
sticking  to  the  metal  is  forced  out  of  the  joint. 
If  the  ends  were  concave  this  matter  would  be 


FIG.  39.  FIG.  40. 

held  between  the  pieces  and  make  a  poor  weld. 
The  pieces  are  welded  by  being  struck  on  the  ends 
and  driven  together.  This,  of  course,  upsets  the 
metal  near  the  weld  and  leaves  the  piece  something 
like  Fig.  40,  showing  a  slight  seam  where  the 
rounded  edges  of  the  ends  join.  This  upset  part 
is  worked  down  to  size  at  a  welding  heat,  leaving 
the  bar  smooth. 

A  butt-weld  is  not  as  safe  or  as  strong  as  a  lap- 
weld. 

When  the  pieces  are  long  enough  they  may  be 
welded  right  in  the  fire.  This  is  done  by  placing 
the  pieces  in  the  fire  in  the  proper  position  for 
welding;  a  heavy  weight  is  held  against  the  pro- 
jecting end  of  one  piece — to  "back  it  up" — and 
the  weld  is  made  by  driving  the  pieces  together 
by  hammering  on  the  projecting  end  of  the  second 
piece.  As  soon  as  the  work  is  "stuck,"  the  weld 


WELDING.  3  5 

is  taken  from  the  fire  and  finished  on  the 
anvil. 

Jump  Weld. — Another  form  of  butt-weld,  Fig.  41, 
is  the  "jump"  weld,  which, 
however,  is  a  form  which  should 
be  avoided  as  much  as  possible, 
as  it  is  very  liable  to  be  weak. 
When  making  a  weld  like  this,  the 
piece  which  is  to  be  "jumped," 
or  "butted,"  on  to  the  other  FlG-  41. 

piece  should  have  its  end  upset  in  such  a  way  as 
to  flare  out  and  form  a  sort  of  flange  the  wider 
the  better.  When  the  weld  is  made,  this  flange — • 
indicated  by  the  arrow — can  be  welded  down  with  a 
hammer,  or  set-hammers,  and  make  a  fairly  strong 
weld. 

Split  Weld;  Weld  for  very  Thin  Steel. — Very  thin 
stock  is  sometimes  difficult  to  join  with  the  ordi- 
nary lap -weld  for  the  reason  that  the  stock  is  so 
thin  that  if  the  pieces  are  taken  from  the  fire  at  the 
proper  heat  they  will  be  too  cold  to  weld  before 
they  can  be  properly  placed  together  on  the  anvil. 

This  difficulty  is  somewhat  overcome  by  scarfing 
the  ends,  similar  to  Fig.  42.  The  ends  are  tapered 


FIG.  42. 

to  a  blunt  edge  and  split  down  the  center  for  half  an 
inch  or  so,  depending  on  the  thickness  of  stock. 
One  half  of  each  split  end  is  bent  up,  the  other 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


down;    the  ends  are  pushed  lightly   together    and 
the  split  parts  closed  down  on  each  other,  as  shown 


FIG.  43- 

in  Fig.  43.  The  joint  may  then  be  heated  and 
welded. 

This  is  a  weld  sometimes  used  for  welding  spring 
steel,  or  iron  to  steel. 

Split  Weld;  Heavier  Stock. — A  split  weld  for 
heavier  stock  is  shown  ready  for  welding  in  Fig. 


FIG.  44. 


FIG.  45- 


FIG.  46. 

45,  Fig.  44  showing  the  two  pieces  before  they  are 
put  together.  In  this  weld  the  ends  of  the  pieces 
are  first  upset  and  then  scarfed,  one  piece  being 


WELDING.  3  7 

split  and  shaped  into  a  Y,  while  the  other  has  its 
end  brought  to  a  point  with  the  sides  of  the  bar 
just  back  of  the  point  bulging  out  slightly  as  shown 
at  A  and  B.  This  bulge  is  to  prevent  the  two 
pieces  from  slipping  apart. 

When  properly  shaped  the  two  pieces  are  driven 
together  and  the  sides,  or  lips,  of  the  Y-shaped 
scarf  closed  down  over  the  pointed  end  of  the  other 
piece.  The  lips  of  the  Y  should  be  long  enough  to 
lap  over  the  bulge  on  the  end  of  the  other  piece 
and  thus  prevent  the  two  pieces  from  slipping  apart. 
The  pieces  are  then  heated  and  welded.  Care  must 
be  taken  to  heat  slowly,  that  the  pointed  part  may 
be  brought  to  a  welding  heat  without  burning  the 
outside  piece.  Borax,  sand,  or  some  other  flux 
should  be  used.  (Sometimes  the  faces  of  the  scarfs 
are  roughened  or  notched  with  a  chisel,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  46,  to  prevent  the  pieces  from  slipping  apart.) 

This  is  the  weld  that  is  often  used  when  welding 
tool-steel  to  iron  or  mild  steel. 

Sometimes  the  pieces  are  heated  separately  to  a 
welding  heat  before  being  placed  together.  Good 
results  may  be  obtained  this  way  when  tool-steel  is 
welded  to  iron  or  mild  steel,  as  the  tool-steel  welds 
at  a  much  lower  temperature  than  either  wrought 
iron  or  mild  steel,  and  if  the  two  pieces  are  heated 
separately,  the  other  metal  may  be  raised  to  a  much 
higher  temperature  than  the  tool-steel. 

Angle  Weld. — In  all  welding  it  should  be  remem- 
bered that  the  object  of  scarring  is  to  so  shape  the 
pieces  to  be  welded,  that  they  will  fit  together  and 
form  a  smooth  joint  when  properly  hammered. 


FORGE  PRACTICE. 


Frequently  there  are  several  equally  good  methods 
of  scarfing  for  the  same  sort  of  weld,  and  it  should 
be  remembered  that  the  method  given  here  is  not 
necessarily  the  only  way  in  which  the  particular 
weld  can  be  made. 

Fig.  47  shows  one  way  of 
scarfing  for  a  right-angle  weld 
made  of  flat  iron.  Both  pieces 
are  scarfed  exactly  alike.  The 
scarfing  is  done  with  the  pene 
end  of  the  hammer.  If  neces- 
sary the  ends  of  the  pieces 
may  be  upset  before  scarfing. 

As  in  all  other  welds,  care 
must  be  taken  to  so  shape  the 
scarfs  that  when  they  are  placed 
together  they  will  touch  in  the 
center,  and  not  around  the  edges,  thus  leaving  an 
opening  for  forcing  out  the  impurities  which  collect 
on  the  surfaces  to  be  welded. 


FIG.  47. 


FIG.  48. 

"T"  Weld.  —  A  method  of  scarfing   for  a 
weld  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  48. 


WELDING. 


39 


The  stem,  A,  should  be  placed  on  the  bar,  B, 
when  welding  in  about  the  position  shown  by  the 
dotted  line  on  B. 

"T"  Weld,  Round  Stock.  —  Two  methods  of 
scarfing  for  a  "T"  weld  made  from  round  stock  are 
shown  in  Fig.  49. 


FIG.  49. 

The  scarfs  are  formed  mostly  with  the  pene  end 
of  the  hammer. 

The  illustration  will  explain  itself.  The  stock 
should  be  well  upset  in  either  method. 

Welding  Tool  -  steel.  —  The  general  method  of 
scarfing  is  the  same  in  all  welding ;  but  when  tool- 
steel  is  to  be  welded,  either  to  itself  or  to  wrought 
iron  or  mild  steel,  more  care  must  be  used  in  the 
heating  than  when  working  with  the  softer  metals 
alone. 

The  proper  heat  for  welding  tool-steel — about  a 
bright  yellow — can  only  be  learned  by  experiment. 
If  the  tool-steel  is  heated  until  the  sparks  fly,  a 
light  blow  of  the  hammer  will  cause  it  to  crumble 
and  fall  to  pieces. 


4O  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

When  welding  mild  steel  or  wrought  iron  to  tool- 
steel,  the  tool-steel  should  be  at  a  lower  heat  than 
the  other  metal,  which  should  be  heated  to  its  reg- 
ular welding  heat. 

The  flux  used  should  be  a  mixture  of  about  one 
part  sal  ammoniac  and  four  parts  borax. 

Tool-steel  of  high  carbon,  and  such  as  is  used  for 
files,  small  lathe  tools,  etc.,  can  seldom  be  welded  to 
itself  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  What  appears  to 
be  a  first-class  weld  may  be  made,  and  the  steel 
may  work  up  into  shape  and  seem  perfect — may,  in 
fact,  be  machined  and  finished  without  showing 
any  signs  of  the  weld — but  when  the  work  is  hard- 
ened, the  weld  is  almost  certain  to  crack  open. 

Spring  steel,  a  lower  carbon  steel,  may  be  satis- 
factorily welded  if  great  care  be  used. 


CHAPTER  III. 


CALCULATION  OF   STOCK   FOR  BENT  SHAPES. 

Calculating  for   Angles  and    Simple    Bends.  —  It    is 

often  necessary  to  cut  the  stock  for  a  forging  as 
nearly  as  possible  to  the  exact  length  needed.  This 
length  can  generally  be  easily  obtained  by  meas- 
ment  or  calculation. 

About  the  simplest  case  for  calculation  is  a  plain 
right-angle  bend,  of  which  the  piece  in  Fig.  50  will 
serve  as  an  example. 

This  piece  as  shown  is  a  simple  right-angle  bend 
made  from  stock  i"  through,  8"  long  on  the  outside 
of  each  leg. 


* 


.*' 


n 


FIG.  50. 


FIG.  51. 


Suppose  this  to  be  made  of  wood  in  place  of  iron. 
It  is  easily  seen  that  a  piece  of  stock  i"  thick  and 
15"  long  would  make  the  angle  by  cutting  off  7" 

41 


4 2  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

from  one  end  and  fastening  this  piece  to  the  end  of 
the  8"  piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  51. 

This  is  practically  what  is  done  when  the  angle  is 
made  of  iron — onlyf  in  place  of  cutting  and  fasten- 
ing, the  bar  is  bent  and  hammered  into  shape. 

In  other  words,  any  method  which  will  give  the 
length  of  stock  required  to  make  a  shape  of  uniform 
section  in  wood,  if  no  allowance  is  made-  for  cutting 
or  waste,  will  also  give  the  length  required  to  make 
the  same  shape  with  iron. 

An  easier  way — which  will  serve  for  calculating 
lengths  of  all  bent  shapes — is  to  measure  the  length 
of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  through  the  center  of 
the  stock.  Thus,  if  a  dotted  line  should  be  drawn 
through  the  center  of  stock  in  Fig.  50,  the  length  of 
each  leg  of  this  line  would  be  7^",  and  the  length  of 
stock  required  15",  as  found  before. 

No  matter  what  the  shape  when  the  stock  is  left 
of  uniform  width  through  its  length,  this  length  of 
straight  stock  may  always  be  found  by  measuring 
the  length  of  the  center  line  on  the  bent  shape. 
This  may  be  clearly  shown  by  the  following  experi- 
ment. 

Experiment  to  Determine  Part  of  Stock  which 
Remains  Constant  in  Length  while  Bending.  —  Sup- 
pose a  straight  bar  of  iron  with  square  ends  be 
taken  and  bent  into  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  52.  If 

the  length  of  the  bar  be 
measured  on  the  inside 
edge  of  the  bend  and  then 
FlG-  5 2-  on  the  outside,  it  will  be 

found  that  the  inside  length  is  considerably  shorter 


CALCULATION   OF    STOCK    FOR   BENT    SHAPES  43 

than  the  outside;  and  not  only  this,  but  the  inside 
will  be  shorter  than  the  original  bar,  while  the  out- 
side will  be  longer.  The  metal  must  therefore 
squeeze  together  or  upset  on  the  inside  and 
stretch  or  draw  out  on  the  outside.  If  this  is  the 
case,  as  it  is,  there  must  be  some  part  of  the  bar 
which  when  it  is  bent  neither  squeezes  together  nor 
draws  out,  but  retains  its  original  length,  and  this 
part  of  the  bar  lies  almost  exactly  in  the  center,  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  line.  It  is  on  this  line  of  the 
bent  bar  that  the  measuring  must  be  done  in  order 
to  determine  the  original  length  of  the  straight 
stock,  for  this  is  the  only  part  of  the  stock  which 
remains  unaltered  in  length  when  the  bar  is  bent. 

To  make  the  explanation  a  little  clearer,  suppose 
a  bar  of  iron  is  taken,  polished  on  one  side,  and  lines 
scratched  upon  the  surface,  as  shown  in  the  lower 
drawing  of  Fig.  53,  and  this  bar  then  bent  into  the 
shape  showrn  in  the  upper  drawing.  Now  if  the 
length  of  each  one  of  these  lines  be  measured  and 
the  measurements  compared  with  the  length  of  the 
same  lines  before  the  bar  was  bent,  it  would  be 
found  that  the  line  A  A,  on  the  outside  of  the  bar, 
had  lengthened  considerably;  the  line  BB  would 
be  somewhat  lengthened,  but  not  as  much  as  A  A ; 
and  CC  would  be  lengthened  less  than  BB.  The 
line  00,  through  the  center  of  the  bar,  would  meas- 
ure almost  exactly  the  same  as  when  the  bar  was 
straight.  The  line  DD  would  be  found  to  be 
shorter  than  00  and  FF  shorter  than  any  other. 
The  line  00,  at  the  center  of  the  bar,  does  not 
change  its  length  when  the  bar  is  bent;  conse- 


44 


quently,  to  determine  the  length  of    straight  stock 
required    to    bend    into    any    shape,    measure    the 

< — A— 5Vi >i 

r 


rA 

AD 

°n 

r  ~ 

5 

LF 

FC 

*< 

) 

** 

B 

/ 

t  — 

r- 

T 

if 

:- 



-4- 

j 

FIG.  53. 


FIG.  54. 


length  of  the  line  following  the  center  of  the  stock 
of  the  bent  shape. 

As  another  example  Fig.  54  will  serve. 

Suppose  a  center  line  be  drawn,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  line.  As  the  stock  is  i"  thick,  the  length  of 
the  center  line  of  the  part  A  will  be  5",  at  B  8", 
C  5",  D  2",  E  3$",  and  the  total  length  of  stock 
required  2\\" . 

A  convenient  form  for  making  calculations  is  as 
follows : 

A  =  5" 


Total.    ..  2 1  £"  =  length  of  stock  required. 

Curves.  Circles.  Methods  of  Measuring.  —  On  cir- 
cles and  curves  there  are  several  different  methods 
which  may  be  employed  in  determining  the  length 
of  stock,  but  the  same  principle  must  be  followed 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK    FOR   BENT    SHAPES. 


45 


in  any  case — the  length  must  be  measured  along 
the  center  line  of  the  stock. 

One  way  of  measuring  is  to  lay  off  the  work  full  size. 
On  this  full-size  drawing  lay  a  string  or  thin,  easily 
bent  wire  in  such  a  way  that  it  follows  the  shape 
of  the  bend  through  its  entire  length,  being  careful 
that  the  string  is  laid  along  the  center  of  the  stock. 

The  string  or  wire  may  then  be  straightened  and 
the  length  measured  directly. 

Irregular  shapes  or  scrolls  are  easily  measured  in 
this  way. 

Another  method  of  measuring  stock  for  scrolls, 
etc.,  is  to  step  around  a  scroll  with  a  pair  of  dividers 
with  the  points  a  short  distance  apart,  and  then  lay 
off  the  same  number  of  spaces  in  a  straight  line  and 
measure  the  length  of  that  line.  This  is  of  more 
use  in  the  drawing-room  than  in  the  shop. 

Measuring-wheel. — Still  another  way  of  measuring 
directly  from  the  drawing  is  to  use  a 
light  measuring- wheel,  similar  to 
the  one  shown  in  Fig.  55,  mounted 
in  some  sort  of  a  handle.  This  is  a 
thin  light  wheel  generally  made 
with  a  circumference  of  about 
24".  The  side  of  the  rim  is  some- 
times graduated  in  inches  by 
eighths.  To  use  it,  the  wheel  is 
placed  lightly  in  contact  with  the 
line  or  object  which  it  is  wished 
to  measure,  with  the  zero-mark  on 
the  wheel  corresponding  to  the  point  from  which 
the  measurement  is  started.  The  wheel  is  then 


FIG.  55. 


46  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

pushed  along  the  surface  following  the  line  to  be 
measured,  with  just  pressure  enough  to  make  it 
revolve.  By  counting  the  revolutions  made  and 
setting  the  pointer  or  making  a  mark  on  the  wheel 
to  correspond  to  the  end  of  the  line  when  it  is 
reached,  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  push  the  wheel  over 
a  straight  line  for  the  same  number  of  revolutions 
and  part  of  a  revolution  as  shown  by  the  pointer 
and  measure  the  length.  If  the  wheel  is  gradu- 
ated, the  length  run  over  can  of  course  be  read 
directly  from  the  figures  on  the  side  of  the  wheel. 

Calculating  Stock  for  Circles. — On  circles  and  parts 
of  circles,  the  length  may  be  calculated  mathe- 
matically, and  in  the  majority  of  cases  this  is  prob- 
ably the  easiest  and  most  accurate  method.  This 
is  done  in  the  following  way:  The  circumference,  or 
distance  around  a  circle,  is  equal  to  the  diameter 
multiplied  by  3}  (or  more  accurately,  3.1416). 

As  an  illustration,  the  length  of  stock  required  to 
bend  up  the  ring  in  Fig.  56  is  calculated  as  follows: 
The  inside  diameter  of  the  ring  is  6"  and  the 
stock  i"  in  diameter.     The  length  must,  of  course, 
be  measured  along  the  center 
of   the   stock,    as    shown   by 
the    dotted    line.     It    is    the 
diameter  of  this  circle,  made 
by   the   dotted   line,    that   is 
used      for      calculating      the 
length    of    stock;      and     for 
convenience     this     may     be 
FIG.  56.  called  the    "calculating"    di- 

ameter, shown  by  C  in  Fig.  56. 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK    FOR    BENT    SHAPES. 


47 


The  length  of  this  calculating  diameter  is  equal 
to  the  inside  diameter  of  the  ring  with  one-half  the 
thickness  of  stock  added  at  each  end,  and  in  this 
case  would  be  \"  +  6"  +  ^"  =  7". 

The  length  of  stock  required  to  make  the  ring 
would  be  7//X3}-=22//;  or,  in  other  words,  to  find 
the  length  of  stock  required  to  make  a  ring,  multi- 
ply the  diameter  of  the  ring,  measured  from  center 
to  center  of  the  stock,  by  3^-. 

Calculating  Stock  for  "  U's." — Some  shapes  may 
be  divided  up  into  straight  lines  and  parts  of  circles 
and  then  easily  calculated.  Thus  k — s 
the  U  shape  in  Fig.  57  may  be 
divided  into  two  straight  sides  and  _^j<-- 

a  half -circle  end.  The  end  is  half  of 
a  circle  having  an  outside  diameter 
of  3^" .  The  calculating  diameter  of 
this  circle  would  be  3",  and  the 
length  of  stock  required  for  an  entire  FIG.  57. 

circle  this  size  3X3^  =  9!,  which  for  convenience 
we  may  call  9§",  as  this  is  near  enough  for  ordinary 
work.  As  the  forging  calls  for  only  half  a  circle, 
the  length  needed  would  be  9f"  +  %  =  4{$". 

As  the  circle  is  3!"  outside  diameter,  half  of  this 
diameter,  or  if",  must  be  taken  from  the  total 
length  of  the  U  to  give  the  length  of  the  straight 
part  of  the  sides ;  in  other  words,  the  distance  from 
the  line  A  to  the  extreme  end  of  the  U  is  half  the 
diameter  of  the  circle,  or  if".  This  leaves  the 
straight  sides  each  4^"  long,  or  a  total  length  for 
both  of  8y.  The  total  stock  required  for  the 
forging  would  be : 


48 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


Length  stock  for  sides 84-" 

end 4\l" 


<  <       i  < 


Total 


"     forging i3vy. 


|: 


Link.- — As  another  example,  take  the  link  shown 
in  Fig.  58.     This  may  be  divided  int(/the  two  semi- 
circles at  the  ends  and  the 
two  straight  sides.     Calcu- 
lating   as    always  through 
the    center    of    the    stock, 
there  are  the   two  straight 
sides  2"  long,  or  4",  and  the 
FlG-  58-  two    semicircular    ends,   or 

one  complete  circle  for  the  two  ends.  The  length 
required  for  these  two  ends  would  be  i?"X3|"  = 
f  f "  =  4i",  or,  nearly  enough,  4^".  The  total  length 
of  the  stock  would  be  4"  +  4li"  =  8i£",  to  which 
must  be  added  a  slight  amount  for  the  weld. 

Double  Link. — The  double  link  in  Fig.  59  is  an- 
other example  of  stock  calculation.  Here  there 
are  two  complete  circles  each  hav- 
ing an  inside  diameter  of  £",  and, 
as  they  are  made  of  |"  stock,  a 
4 '  calculating ' '  diameter  of  i " .  The 
length  of  stock  required  for  one  side 
would  be  3.1416''  X  i"  =  3.1416", 
and  the  total  length  for  complete  FlG-  59- 

links  3. 1416"  X  2"  =  6. 2832",  which  is  about  6\".. 

As  a  general  rule  it  is  much  easier  to  make  the 
calculations  with  decimals  as  above  and  then 
reduce  these  decimals  to  eighths,  sixteenths,  etc. 


CALCULATION   OF   STOCK   FOR   BENT    SHAPES.  49 

Use  of  Tables.. —  To  aid  in  reduction  a  table  of 
decimal  equivalents  is  given  on  p.  249.  By  using 
this  table  it  is  only  necessary  to  find  the  decimal 
result  and  select  the  nearest  sixteenth  in  the  table. 
It  is  generally  sufficiently  accurate  to  take  the 
nearest  sixteenth. 

A  table  of  circumferences  of  circles  is  also  given; 
and  by  looking  up  the  diameter  of  any  circle  the 
circumference  may  be  found  opposite. 

To  illustrate,  suppose  it  is  necessary  to  find  the 
amount,  of  stock  required  to  make  a  ring  6"  inside 
diameter  out  of  f "  round  stock.  This  would  make 
the  calculating  diameter  of  the  ring  6f . 

In  the  table  of  circumferences  and  areas  of  circles 
opposite  a  diameter  6f  is  found  the  circumference 
21.206.  In  the  table  of  decimal  equivalents  it  will 
be  seen  that  -^  is  the  nearest  sixteenth  to  the  deci- 
mal .206;  thus  the  amount  of  stock  required  is 
21-^-".  This  of  course  makes  no  allowance  for 
welding. 

Allowance  for  Welding.  —  Some  allowance  must 
always  be  made  for  welding,  but  the  exact  amount 
is  very  hard  to  determine,  as  it  depends  on  how 
carefully  the  iron  is  heated  and  how  many  heats 
are  taken  to  make  the  weld. 

The  only  stock  which  is  really  lost  in  welding, 
and  consequently  the  only  waste  which  has  to  be 
allowed  for,  is  the  amount  which  is  burned  off  or 
lost  in  scale  when  heating  the  iron. 

Of  course  when  preparing  for  the  weld  the  ends 
of  the  piece  are  upset  and  the  work  consequently 
shortened,  and  the  pieces  are  still  farther  shortened 


50  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

by  overlapping  the  ends  in  making  the  weld;  but 
all  this  material  is  afterward  hammered  back  into 
shape  so  that  no  loss  occurs  here  at  all,  except  of 
course  the  loss  from  scaling. 

A  skilled  workman  requires  a  very  small  allow- 
ance for  waste  in  welding,  in  fact  sometimes  none 
at  all;  but  by  the  beginners  an  allowance  should 
always  be  made. 

No  rules  can  be  given;  but  as  a  rough  guide  on 
small  work,  a  length  of  stock  equal  to  from  one- 
fourth  to  three-fourths  the  thickness  of  the  bar  will 
probably  be  about  right  for  waste  on  rings,  etc. 
When  making  straight  welds,  when  possible  it  is 
better  to  allow  a  little  more  than  is  necessary  and 
trim  off  the  extra  stock  from  the  end  of  the  finished 
piece. 

Work  of  this  kind  should  be  watched  very  closely 
and  the  stock  measured  before  and  after  welding  in 
order  to  determine  exactly  how  much  stock  is  lost 
in  welding.  In  this  way  an  accurate  knowledge  is 
soon  obtained  of  the  proper  allowance  for  waste. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

UPSETTING,    DRAWING  OUT,    AND   BENDING. 

Drawing  Out. — When  a  piece  of  metal  is  worked 
out,  either  by  pounding  or  otherwise,  in  such  a  way 
that  the  length  is  increased,  and  either  the  width  or 
thickness  reduced,  we  say  that  the  metal  is  being 
"  drawn  out,"  and  the  operation  is  known  as  "  draw- 
ing out." 

It  is  always  best  when  drawing  out  to  heat  the 
metal  to  as  high  a  heat  as  it  will  stand  without 
injury.  Work  can  sometimes  be  drawn  out  much 
faster  by  working  over  the  horn  of  the  anvil  than  on 
the  face,  the  reason  being  this:  when  a  piece  of 
iron  is  laid  flat  on  the  anvil  face  and  hit  a  blow  with 
the  hammer,  it  flattens  out  and  spreads  both  length- 
wise and  crosswise,  making  the  piece  longer  and 
wider.  The  piece  is  not  wanted  wider,  however, 
but  only  longer,  so  it  is  necessary  to  turn  it  on  edge 
and  strike  it  in  this  position,  when  it  will  again  in- 
crease in  length  and  also  in  thickness,  and  will  have 
to  be  thinned  out  again.  A  good  deal  of  work  thus 
goes  to  either  increasing  the  width  or  thickness, 
which  is  not  wanted  increased;  consequently  this 
work  and  the  work  required  to  again  thin  the  forg- 
ing are  lost.  In  other  words,  when  drawing  out 
iron  on  the  face  of  the  anvil  the  force  of  the  blow  is 


52  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

expended  in  forcing  the  iron  sidewise  as  well  as 
lengthwise,  and  the  work  used  in  forcing  the  iron 
sidewise  is  lost.  Thus  only  about  one  half  the 
force  of  the  blow  is  really  used  to  do  the  work 
wanted. 

Suppose  the  iron  be  placed  on  the  horn  of  the 


FIG.  60. 


anvil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  60,  and  hit  with  the  hammer 
as  before.  The  iron  will  still  spread  out  sidewise  a 
little,  but  not  nearly  as  much  as  before  and  will 
lengthen  out  very  much  more.  The  horn  in  this 
case  acts  as  sort  of  a  blunt  wedge,  forcing  out  the 
metal  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow,  and  the  force  of 
the  blow  is  used  almost  entirely  in  lengthening  the 
work. 

Fullers  may  be  used  for  the  same  purpose,  and 
the  work  held  either  on  the  horn  or  the  face  of  the 
anvil. 

Drawing  Out  and  Pointing  Round  Stock. — When 
drawing  out  or  pointing  round  stock  it  should  always 
be  first  forged  down  square  to  the  required  size  and 
then,  in  as  few  blows  as  possible,  rounded  up. 

Fig.  6 1  illustrates  the  different  steps  in  drawing 
out  round  iron  to  a  smaller  size.  A  is  the  original 


UPSETTING,   DRAWING   OUT,   AND   BENDING.  53 

bar,  B  is  the  first  step,  C  is  the  next,  when  the  iron 
is  forged  octagonal,  and  the  last  step  is  shown  at  D, 


FIG.  61. 

where  the  iron  is  finished  up  round.  In  drawing 
out  a  piece  of  round  iron  it  should  first  be  forged 
like  B,  then  like  C,  and  lastly  finished  like  D. 

As  an  example:  Suppose  part  of  a  bar  of  •§" 
round  stock  is  to  be  drawn  down  to  f  "  in  diameter. 
Instead  of  pounding  it  down  round  and  round  until 
the  f "  diameter  is  reached,  the  part  to  be  drawn  out 
should  be  forged  perfectly  square  and  this  drawn 
down  to  f",  keeping  it  as  nearly  square  as  possible 
all  the  time. 

The  corners  of  the  square  are  forged  off,  making 
an  octagon,  and,  last  of  all,  the  work  is  rounded  up. 
This  prevents  the  metal  from  splitting,  as  it  is  very 
liable  to  do  if  worked  round  and  round. 


(KB 


tA 
FIG.  62. 


FIG.  63. 


The  reason  for  the  above  is  as  follows:   Suppose 
Fig.  62  represents  the  cross-section  of  a  round  bar 


54  FORGK-PRACTiCtf. 

as  it  is  being  hit  on  the  upper  side.  The  arrows 
indicate  the  flow  of  the  metal — that  is,  it  is  forged 
together  at  AA  and  apart  at  BB.  Xow,  as  the  bar 
is  turned  and  the  hammering  continued,  the  out- 
side metal  is  forced  away  from  the  center,  which 
may,  at  last,  give  way  and  form  a  crack;  and  by 
the  time  the  bar  is  of  the  required  size,  if  cut,  it 
would  probably  look  something  like  Fig.  63. 

The  same  precaution  must  be  taken  when  forging 
any  shaped  stock  down  to  a  round  or  conical  point. 
The  point  must  first  be  made  square  and  then 
rounded  up  by  the  method  given  above.  If  this  is 
not  done  the  point  is  almost  sure  to  split. 

Squaring  Up  Work.  —  A  common  difficulty  met 
with  in  all  drawing  out,  or  in  fact  in  all  work  which 
must  be  hammered  up  square,  is  the  liability  of  the 
bar  to  forge  into  a  diamond  shape,  or  to  have  one 
corner  projecting  out  too  far.  If  a  section  be  cut 
through  a  bar  misshaped  in  this  way,  at  right  angles 
to  its  length,  instead  of  being  a  square  or  rectangle, 
the  shape  will  appear  something  like  one  of  the  out- 
lines in  Fig.  64. 


FIG.  64.  FIG.  65. 

To  remedy  this  and  square  up  the  bad  corners, 
lay  the  bar  across  the  anvil  and  strike  upon  the 
projecting  corners  as  shown  in  Fig.  65,  striking  in 
such  a  way  as  to  force  the  extra  metal  back  into  the 


UPSETTING,    DRAWING    OUT,    AND    BENDING.  55 

body  of  the  bar,  gradually  squaring  it  off.  Just  as 
the  hammer  strikes  the  metal  it  should  be  given  a 
sort  of  a  sliding  motion,  as  indicated  by,  the  arrow. 

No  attempt  should  be  made  to  square  up  a  corner 
of  this  kind  by  simply  striking  squarely  down  upon 
the  work.  The  hammering  should  all  be  done  in 
such  a  way  as  to  force  the  metal  back  into  the  bar 
and  away  from  the  corner. 

Upsetting. — -When  a  piece  of  metal  is  worked  in 
such  a  way  that  its  length  is  shortened,  and  either 
or  both  its  thickness  and  width  increased,  the  piece 
is  said  to  be  upset;  and  the  operation  is  known  as 
upsetting. 

There  are  several  ways  of  upsetting,  the  method 
depending  mostly  on  the  shape  the  work  is  in.  With 
short  pieces  the  work  is  generally  stood  on  end  on 
the  anvil  and  the  blow  struck  directly  on  the  upper 
end.  The  work  should  always  be  kept  straight; 
after  a  few  blows  it  will  probably  start  to  bend  and 
must  then  be  straightened  before  more  upsetting  is 
done. 

If  one  part  only  of  a  piece  is  to  be  upset,  then  the 
heat  must  be  confined  to  that  part,  as  the  part  of 
the  work  which  is  hottest  will  be  upset  the  most. 

When  upsetting  a  short  piece  for  its  entire  length, 
it  will  sometimes  work  up  like  Fig.  66.  This  may 
be  due  to  two  causes:  either  the  ends  were  hotter 
than  the  center  or  the  blows  of  the  hammer  were 
too  light.  To  bring  a  piece  of  this  sort  to  uniform 
size  throughout,  it  should  be  heated  to  a  higher  heat 
in  the  center  and  upset  with  heavy  blows.  If  the 
work  is  very  short  it  is  not  always  convenient  to 


56  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

confine  the  heat  to  the  central  part;  in  such  a  case, 
the  piece  may  be  heated  all  over,  seized  by  the  tongs 
in  the  middle  and  the  ends  cooled,  one  at  a  time,  in 
the  water-bucket. 


FIG.  66.  FIG.  67. 

When  light  blows  are  used  the  effect  of  the  blow 
does  not  reach  the  middle  of  the  work,  and  conse- 
quently the  upsetting  is  only  done  on  the  ends. 

The  effect  of  good  heating  and  heavy  blows  is 
shown  in  Fig.  67.  With  a  heavy  blow  the  work  is 
upset  more  in  the  middle  and  less  on  the  ends. 

To  bring  a  piece  of  this  kind  to  uniform  size 
throughout,  one  end  should  be  heated  and  upset 
and  then  the  other  end  treated  in  the  same  way, 
confining  the  heat  each  time  as  much  as  possible 
to  the  ends. 

Long  work  may  be  upset  by  laying  it  across  the 
face  of  the  anvil,  letting  the  heated  end  extend  two 
or  three  inches  over  the  edge,  the  upsetting  being 
done  by  striking  against  this  end  with  the  hammer 
or  sledge.  If  the  work  is  heavy  the  weight  will 
offer  enough  resistance  to  the  blow  to  prevent  the 
piece  from  sliding  back  too  far  at  each  blow;  but 
with  lighter  pieces  it  may  be  necessary  to  "back 
up"  the  work  by  holding  a  sledge  against  the  un- 
heated  end. 


UPSETTING,    DRAWING  OUT,   AND  BENDING.  57 

Another  way  of  upsetting  the  ends  of  a  heavy 
piece  is  to  "ram"  the  heated  end  against  the  side  of 
the  anvil  by  swinging  the  work  back  and  forth  hori- 
zontally and  striking  it  against  the  side  of  the  anvil. 
The  weight  of  the  piece  in  this  case  takes  the  place 
of  the  hammer  and  does  the  upsetting. 

Heavy  pieces  are  sometimes  upset  by  lifting  them 
up  and  dropping  or  driving  them  down  on  the  face 
of  the  anvil  or  against  a  heavy  block  of  iron  resting 
on  the  floor.  Heavy  cast-iron  plates  are  sometimes 
set  in  the  floor  for  this  purpose,  and  are  called 
' '  upsetting-plates. ' ' 

Fig.  68  shows  the  effect  of  the  blows  when  upset- 
ting the  end  of  a  bar.  The  lower  piece  has  been 
properly  heated  and  upset  with 
heavy  blows,  while  the  other 
piece  shows  the  effect  of  light 
blows.  This  last  shape  may  also 
be  caused  by  having  the  extreme 
end  at  a  higher  heat  than  the  rest 
of  the  part  to  be  upset.  FlG-  68- 

Punching. — There  are  two  kinds  of  punches  used 
for  making  holes  in  hot  metal — the  straight  hand- 
punch,  used  with  a  hand-hammer,  and  the  punch 
made  from  heavier  stock  and  provided  with  a 
handle,  used  with  a  sledge-hammer. 

Punches  should,  of  course,  be  made  of  tool-steel. 

For  punching  small  holes  in  thin  iron  a  hand- 
punch  is  ordinarily  used.  This  is  simply  a  bar  of 
round  or  octagonal  steel,  eight  or  ten  inches  long, 
with  the  end  forged  down  tapering,  and  the  extreme 
end  the  same  shape,  but  slightly  smaller  than  the 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


hole  which  is  to  be  punched.  Such  a  punch  is 
shown  in  Fig.  69.  The  punch  should  taper  uni- 
formly, and  the  extreme  end  should  be  perfectly 
square  across,  not  in  the  least  rounding. 


FIG.  69. 


FIG.  70. 


For  heavier  and  faster  work  with  a  helper,  a 
punch  like  Fig.  70  is  used.  This  is  driven  into  the 
work  with  a  sledge-hammer. 

A,  B,  and  C,  in  Fig.  71,  show  the  different  steps 
in  punching  a  clean  hole  through  a  piece  of  hot  iron. 


FIG.  71. 

The  punch  is  first  driven  about  half-way  through 
the  bar  while  the  work  is  lying  flat  on  the  anvil; 
this  compresses  the  metal  directly  underneath  the 
punch  and  raises  a  slight  bulge  on  the  opposite  side 
of  the  bar  by  which  the  hole  can  be  readily  located. 
The  piece  is  then  turned  over  and  the  punching 
completed  from  this  side,  the  small  piece,  "A1', 
being  driven  completely  through.  This  leaves  a 


UPSETTING,    DRAWING   OUT,    AND    BENDING.  59 

clean  hole ;  while  if  the  punching  were  all  done  from 
one  side,  a  burr,  or  projection,  wrould  be  raised  on 
the  side  where  the  punch  came  through. 

D  and  E  (Fig.  71)  illustrate  the  effects  of  proper 
and  improper  punching.  If  started  from  one  side 
and  finished  from  the  other  the  hole  will  be  clean 
and  sharp  on  both  sides  of  the  work;  but  if  the 
punching  is  done  from  one  side  only  a  burr  will  be 
raised,  as  shown  at  E,  on  the  side  opposite  to  that 
from  which  the  punching  is  done. 

If  the  piece  is  thick  the  punch  should  be  started, 
then  a  little  powdered  coal  put  in  the  hole,  and  the 
punching  continued.  The  coal  prevents  the  punch 
from  sticking  as  much  as  it  would  without  it. 

Bending. — Bends  may  be  roughly  divided  into  two 
classes — curves  and  angles. 

Angles.  —  In  bending  angles  it  is  nearly  always 
necessary  to  make  the  bend  at  some  definite  point 
on  the  stock.  As  the  measurements  are  much  easier 
made  while  the  stock  is  cold  than  when  hot,  it  is 
best  to  "lay  off"  the  stock  before  heating. 

The  point  at  which  the  bend  is  to  be  made  should 
be  marked  with  a  center  punch — generally  on  the 
edge  of  the  stock,  in  preference  to  the  side. 

Marking  with  a  cold  chisel  should  not  be  done 
unless  done  very  lightly  on  the  edge  of  stock.  If  a 
slight  nick  be  made  on  the  side  of  a  piece  of  stock  to 
be  bent,  and  the  stockbent  at  this  point  with  the 
nick  outside,  the  small  nick  will  expand  and  leave 
quite  a  crack.  If  the  nick  be  on  the  inside,  it  is  apt 
to  start  a  bad  cold  shut  which  may  extend  nearly 
through  the  stock  before  the  bending  is  finished. 


00  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Whenever  convenient,  it  is  generally  easier  to 
bend  in  a  vise,  as  the  piece  may  be  gripped  at  the 
exact  point  where  the  bend  is  wanted. 

When  making  a  bend  over  the  anvil  the  stock 
should  be  laid  flat  on  the  face,  with  the  point  at 


o 

LJ 


FIG.  72. 

which  the  bend  is  wanted  almost,  but  not  quite,  up 
to  the  outside  edge  of  the  anvil. 

The  bar  should  be  held  down  firmly  on  the  anvil 
by  bearing  down  on  it  with  a  sledge,  so  placed  that 
the  outside  edge  of  the  sledge  is  about  in  line  with 
the  outside  edge  of  the  anvil. 

This  makes  it  possible  to  make  a  short  bend  with 
less  hammering  than  when  the  sledge  is  not  used. 

The  bar  will  pull  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil 
slightly  when  bending. 

Bend   with   Forged   Corner.  —  Brackets   and   other 
/  forgings  are  sometimes  made  with 
the  outside   corner  of  the   bend 
forged   up   square,    as  shown    in 

Fig-  73- 

There     are     several    ways     of 
bending  a  piece  to  finish  in  this 
FIG.  73.  shape. 

One  way  is  to  take  stock  of  the  required  finished 


UPSETTING,   DRAWING    OUT,    AND    BENDING.  6 1 

size  and  bend  the  angle,  forging  the  corner  square 
as  it  is  bent ;  another  is  to  start  with  stock  consid- 
erably thicker  than  the  finished  forging  and  draw 
down  both  ends  to  the  required  finished  thickness, 
leaving  a  thin-pointed  ridge  across  the  bar  at  the 
point  where  the  bend  will  come,  this  ridge  forming 
the  outside  or  square  corner  of  the  angle  where  the 
piece  is  bent ;  or  this  ridge  may  be  formed  by  upset- 
ting before  bending. 

The  process  in  detail  of  the  first  method  men- 
tioned is  as  follows :  The  first  step  is  to  bend  the  bar 
so  that  it  forms  nearly  a  right  angle,  keeping  the 
bend  as  sharp  as  possible,  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  74). 


FIG.  74. 

This  should  be  done  at  a  high  heat,  as  the  higher 
the  heat  the  easier  it  is  to  bend  the  iron  and  conse- 
quently the  sharper  the  bend. 

Working  the  iron  at  a  good  high  heat,  as  before, 
the  outside  of  the  bend  should  be  forged  into  a 
sharp  corner,  letting  the  blows  come  in  such  a  way 
as  to  force  the  metal  out  where  it  is  wanted,  being 
careful  not  to  let  the  angle  bend  so  that  it  becomes 
less  than  a  right  angle  or  even  equal  to  one.  Fig. 


62  FORGE-PR ACTIl  I.. 

74,  B,  shows  the  proper  way  to  strike.  The  arrows 
indicate  the  direction  of  the  blows. 

The  work  should  rest  on  top  of  the  anvil  while 
this  is  being  done,  not  over  one  corner.  If  worked 
over  the  corner,  the  stock  will  be  hammered  too 
thin. 

The  object  in  keeping  the  angle  obtuse  is  this: 
The  metal  at  the  corner  of  the  bend  is  really  being 
upset,  and  the  action  is  somewhat  as  follows:  In 
Fig.  75  is  shown  the  bent  piece  on  the  anvil.  We 
will  suppose  the  blows  come  on  the  part  A  in  the 
direction  indicated  by  the  heavy  arrow.  The 
metal,  being  heated  to  a  high  soft  heat  at  C,  upsets, 
part  of  it  forming  the  sharp  outside  corner  and 
part  flowing  as  shown  by  the  small  arrow  at  C  and 


FIG.  76 

making  a  sort  of  fillet  on  the  inside  corner.  If  in 
place  of  having  the  angle  greater  than  90  degrees  it 
had  been  an  acute  angle  (Fig.  76),  the  metal  forced 
downward  by  the  blows  on  A  would  carry  with  it 
part  of  the  metal  on  the  inside  of  the  piece  B,  and 
a  cold  shut  or  crack  would  be  formed  on  the  inside 
of  the  angle.  To  form  a  sound  bend  the  corner 
must  be  forged  at  an  angle  greater  than  a  right 
angle.  When  the  piece  has  been  brought  to  a  sharp 


UPSETTING,    DRAWING    OUT,    AND    BENDING. 


FIG.  77. 


corner  the  last  step  is  to  square  up  the  bend  over 
the  corner,  or  edge,  of  the  anvil. 

The  second  way  of  making  the  above  is  to  forge 
a  piece  as  shown  in  Fig.  77, 
where  the  dotted  lines  indi- 
cate the  size  of  the  original 
piece.  This  piece  is  then 
bent  in  such  a  way  that  the 
ridge,  C,  forms  the  outside 
sharp  corner  of  the  angle. 

This  ridge  is  sometimes  upset  in  place  of  being 
drawn  out. 

The  first  method  described  is  the  most  satisfac- 
tory. 

Ring-bending. — In  making  a  ring  the  first  step 
of  course  is  to  calculate  and  cut  from  the  bar  the 
proper  amount  of  stock.  The  bend  should  always 
be  started  from  the  end  of  the  piece.  For  ordinary 
rings  up  to  4"  or  5"  in  diameter  the  stock  should 
be  heated  for  about  one-half  its  length.  To  start 
bending,  the  extreme  end  of  the  piece  should  be 
first  bent  over  the  horn  of  the  anvil,  and  the  bar 
should  be  fed  across  the  horn  of  the  anvil  and  bent 
down  as  it  is  pushed  forward.  Do 
not  strike  directly  on  top  of  the 
horn,  but  let  the  blows  fall  a  little 
way  from  it,  as  in  Fig.  78.  This 
bends  the  iron  and  does  not  pound 
it  out  of  shape.  One-half  of  the 
ring  is  bent  in  this  way  and  then  the  part  left 
straight  is  heated.  This  half  is  bent  up  the  same 
as  the  other,  starting  from  the  end  exactly  as  before. 


FIG.  78. 


64 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


FIG.  79. 


Eye-bending.  —  The  first  step  in  making  an  eye 
like  Fig.  79  is  to  calculate  the 
amount  of  stock  required  for  the 
bend.  The  amount  required  in  th in- 
case, found  by  looking  up  the  circum- 
ference of  a  2"  circle  in  the  table,  is 
7£".  This  distance  should  be  laid  off  by  making 
a  chalk-mark  on  the  face  of  the  anvil  i\"  from  the 
left-hand  end. 

A  piece  of  iron  is  heated  and  laid  on  the  anvil  with 
the  heated  end  on  the  chalk-mark,  the  rest  of  the 
bar  extending  to  the  left.  A  hand-hammer  is  held 
on  the  bar  with  the  edge  of  the  hammer  directly  in 
line  with  the  end  of  the  anvil.  This  measures  off 
7^"  from  the  edge  of  the  hammer  to  the  end  of  the 
bar.  The  bar  is  then  laid  across  the  anvil  bringing 
the  edge  of  the  hammer  exactly  in  line  with  the 
outside  edge  of  the  anvil,  thus  leaving  7^"  project- 
ing over  the  edge.  This  projecting  end  is  bent 
down  until,  it  forms  a  right  angle.  The  extreme 
end  of  this  bent  part  is  then  bent  over  the  horn  into 


1st 


2nd 


4th 


FIG.  80. 


the  circular  shape  and  the  bending  continued  until 
the  eye  is  formed. 


UPSETTING,   DRAWING   OUT,    AND    BENDING. 


The  same  general  method  as  described  for  bend- 
ing rings  should  be  followed.  The  different  steps 
are  shown  in  Fig.  80. 

If  an  eye  is  too  small  to  close 
up  around  the  horn,  it  may  be 
closed  as  far  as  possible  in 
this  way,  and  then  completely 
closed  over  the  corner  or  on 
the  face  of  the  anvil,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  81. 

Double  Link. — Another  good  FlG-  8l- 

example  of  this  sort  of  bending  is  the  double  link, 
shown  in  Fig.  59. 

The  link  is  started  by  bending  the  stock  in  the 
exact  center,  the  first  step  being  to  bend  a  right 
angle.  This  step,  with  the  succeeding  ones,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  82. 


2nd 


1st 


3rd 


4th. 


FIG.  82. 


After  this  piece  has  been  bent  into  a  right  angle, 
the  ring  on  the  end  should  be  bent  in  the  same  way 


66  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

as  an  ordinary  ring ;  excepting  that  all  the  bending 
is  done  from  one  end  of  the  piece,  starting  from  the 
extreme  end  as  usual. 

Twisting. — Fig.  83  shows  the  effects  produced  by 
twisting  stock  of  various  shapes — square,  octagonal, 


FIG.  83. 

and  flat,  the  shapes  being  shown  by  the  cuts  in 
each  case. 

To  twist  work  in  this  way  it  should  be  brought  to 
a  uniform  heat  through  the  length  intended  to 
twist.  When  the  bar  is  properly  heated  it  should 
be  firmly  gripped  with  a  pair  of  tongs,  or  in  a  vise, 
at  the  exact  point  where  the  twist  is  to  commence. 
With  another  pair  of  tongs  the  work  is  taken  hold 
of  where  the  twist  is  to  stop,  and  the  bar  twisted 
through  as  many  turns  as  required.  The  metal 
will  of  course  be  twisted  only  between  the  two  pairs 
of  tongs,  or  between  the  vise  and  the  tongs,  as  the 
case  may  be;  so  care  must  be  used  in  taking  hold 
of  the  bar  or  the  twist  will  be  made  at  the  wrong 
points. 

The  heat  must  be  the  same  throughout  the  part 
to  be  twisted.  If  one  part  is  hotter  than  another, 


UPSETTING,  DRAWING    OUT,    AND    BENDING. 


67 


this  hotter  part,  being  softer,  will  twist  more  easily, 
and  the  twist  will  not  be  uniform.  If  one  end  of 
the  bar  is  wanted  more  tightly  twisted  than  the 
other,  the  heat  should  be  so  regulated  that  the  part 
is  heated  hottest  that  is  wanted  tightest  twisted; 
the  heat  gradually  shading  off  into  the  parts  wanted 
more  loosely  twisted. 

Reverse  Twisting.  —  The  effect    shown   in  Fig.  84 
is  produced  by  reversing  the  direction  of  twisting. 


FIG.  84. 

A  square  bar  is  heated  and  twisted  enough  to 
give  the  desired  angle.  It  is  then  cooled,  in  as 
sharp  a  line  as  possible,  as  far  as  B,  and  twisted 
back  in  the  opposite  direction.  It  is  again  heated, 
cooled  up  to  A,  and  twisted  in  the  first  direction; 
and  this  operation  is  continued  until  the  twist  is  of 
the  desired  length. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SIMPLE   FORGED   WORK. 

Twisted  Gate-hook.- — This  description  answers,  of 
course,  not  only  for  this  particular  piece,  but  for 
others  of  a  like  nature. 

Fig.  85  shows  the  hook  to  be  made.  To  start 
with,  it  must  be  determined  what  length  of  stock, 


FIG.  85. 

after  it  is  forged  to  proper  size,  will  be  required  to 
bend  up  the  ends. 

The  length  of  straight  stock  necessary  should,  of 
course,  be  measured  through  the  center  of  the 
stock  on  the  dotted  lines  in  the  figure.  To  do  this 
lay  out  the  work  full  size,  and  lay  a  string  or  thin 
piece  of  soft  wire  upon  the  lines  to  be  measured. 
It  is  then  a  very  easy  matter  to  straighten  out  the 
wire  or  string,  and  measure  the  exact  length  re- 
quired. If  the  drawing  is  not  made  full  size,  an 
accurate  sketch  may  be  made  on  a  board,  or  other 
flat  surface,  and  the  length  measured  from  this. 

68 


SIMPLE  FORGED  WORK.  69 

The  hook  as  above  will  require   about  2\"  length 
for  stock;  the  eye,  about  2f". 
The  first  step  would  be  like  Fig.  86. 


FIG.  86. 

After  cutting  the  piece  of  -f~'  square  stock,  start 
the  forging  by  drawing  out  the  end,  starting  from 
the  end  and  working  back  into  the  stock  until  a 
piece  is  forged  out  2f"  long  and  \"  in  diameter. 
Now  work  in  the  shoulder  with  the  set-hammer  in 
the  following  way: 

Forming  Shoulders:  Both  Sides  —  One  Side.  —  Place 
the  piece  on  the  anvil  in  such  a  position  that 
the  point  where  the  shoulder  is  wanted  comes 
exactly  on  the  nearest  edge  of  the  anvil.  Place 
the  set  -hammer  on  top  of  the  piece  in  such  a  way 
that  its  edge  comes  directly  in  line  with  the  edge  of 
the  anvil  (Fig.  87).  Do  not  place  the  piece  like 


FIG.  87.  FIG   88. 

Fig.  88,  or  the  result  will  be  as  shown — a  shoulder 
on  one  side  only.  As  the  shoulder  is  worked  in  the 
piece  should  be  turned  continually,  or  the  shoulder 


7O  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

will  work  in  faster  on  one  side  than  on  the  other. 
Always  be  careful  to  keep  the  shoulder  exactly  even 
with  the  edge  of  the  anvil. 

When  the  piece  is  formed  in  the  proper  shape  on 
one  end,  start  the  second  shoulder  4"  from  the  first, 
and  finish  like  Fig.  86.  Bend  the  eye  and  then  the 
hook;  and,  lastly,  put  the  twist  in  the  center. 
Make  the  twist  as  follows: 

First  make  a  chalk-mark  on  the  jaws  of  the  vise, 
so  that  when  the  end  of  the  hook  is  even  with  the 
mark  the  edge  of  the  vise  will  be  where  one  end  of 
the  twist  should  come.     Heat  the  part  to  be  twisted 
to  an  even  yellow  heat  (be  sure 
that  it  is  heated  evenly) ;  place 
*  it  in  a  vise  quickly,  with  the  end 
even  with  the  mark;  grasp  the 
piece  with  the  tongs,  leaving  the 
p      g  distance  between  the  tongs  and 

vise  equal  to  the  length  of  twist 
(Fig.  89) ;   and  twist  it  around  one  complete  turn. 

The  eye  should  be  bent  as  described  before,  and 
the  hook  bent  in  the  same  general  way  as  the  eye. 

Grab-hooks. — This  is  the  name  given  to  a  kind 
of  hooks  used  on  chains,  and  made  for  grabbing  or 
hooking  over  the  chain.  The  hook  is  so  shaped  that 
the  throat,  or  opening,  is  large  enough  to  slip  eas- 
ily over  a  link  turned  edgewise,  but  too  narrow  to 
slip  down  off  this  link  on  to  the  next  one,  which,  of 
course,  passes  through  the  first  link  at  right  angles 
to  it. 

Grab-hooks  are  made  in  a  variety  of  ways,  one  of 
which  is  given  below  in  detail. 


SIMPLE   FORGED   WORK. 


71 


Fig.  90  will  serve  as  an  example.  To  forge  this, 
use  a  bar  of  round  iron  large  enough  in  section  to 
form  the  heavy  part  of  the  hook.  This  bar  should 
first  be  slightly  upset,  either  by  ramming  or  ham- 
mering, for  a  short  distance  from  the  end,  and  then 
flattened  out  like  Fig.  9 1 . 


FIG.  90 


FIG.  92. 


FIG.  93. 


The  next  step  is  to  round  up  the  part  for  the  eye, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  92,  by  forming  it  over  the  corner  of 
the  anvil  as  indicated  in  Fig.  93.  The  eye  should 
be  forged  as  nearly  round  as  possible,  and  then 
punched. 

Particular  attention  should  be  paid  to  this  point. 
If  the  eye  is  not  properly  rounded  before  punching, 
it  is  difficult  to  correct  the  shape  afterward. 

After  punching,  the  inside  corners  of  the  hole  are 
rounded  off  over  the  horn  of  the  anvil  in  the  man- 
ner shown  in  Fig.  94.  Fig.  95  shows  the  appear- 
ance of  a  section  of  the  eye  as  left  by  the  punch. 
When  the  eye  is  finished  it  should  appear  as  though 
bent  up  from  round  iron — that  is,  all  the  square 
corners  should  be  rounded  off  as  shown  in  Fig.  96. 

When  the  eye  is  completed  the  body  of  the  hook 


72  tfORGE-PRACTlCE. 

should  be  drawn  out  straight,  forged  to  size,  and 
then   bent   into   shape.     Care   should   be   taken   to 


FIG.  94. 


keep  the  hook  thickest  around  the  bottom  of  the 
bend. 

As  the  stock  is  entirely  formed  before  bending, 
the  length  of  the  straight  piece  must  be  carefully 

k A_ .     measured,    as   indicated 

(tS*~  3^>     at   A    (Fig.    97),  where 

the  piece  is  shown  ready 
for  bending.  To  deter- 
mine the  required  length  the  drawing  or  sample 
should  be  measured  with  a  string  or  piece  of  flexible 
wire,  measuring  along  the  center  of  the  stock,  from 
the  extreme  point  to  the  center  of  the  eye. 

The  weakest  point  of  almost  any  hook  is  in  the 
bottom  bend.  When  the  hook  is  strained  there  is 
a  tendency  for  it  to  straighten  out  and  take  the 
shape  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  90.  To 
avoid  this  the  bottom  of  the  hook  must  be  kept  as 
thick  as  possible  along  the  line  of  strain,  which  is 
shown  by  the  line  drawn  through  the  eye.  A  good 
shape  for  this  lower  bend  is  shown  in  the  sketch, 
where  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  bar  has  been  ham- 
mered a  little  thinner  in  order  to  increase  the  thick- 
ness of  the  metal  in  the  direction  of  the  line  of 
strain. 


SIMPLE    FORGED    WORK.  73 

The  part  of  the  hook  most  liable  to  bend  under  a 
load  is  the  part  lying  between  the  points  marked 
I  and  J  in.  Fig.  102. 

Another  style  of  grab-hook  is  shown  in  Fig.  98, 


FIG.  98. 

which  shows  the  finished  hook  and  also  the  straight 
piece  ready  for  bending. 

The  forming  will  need  no  particular  description. 
The  hook  shown  is  forged  about  f"  thick;  the  out- 
side edge  around  the  curve  being  thinned  out  to 
about  |",  in  order  to  give  greater  stiffness  in  the 
direction  of  the  strain. 

Stock  about  f"  X  i"  is  used. 

A  very  convenient  way  to  start  the  eye  for  a  hook 
of  this  kind,  or  in  fact  almost  any  forged  eye,  is 
shown  in  Fig.  99.  Two  fullers,  top  and  bottom, 
are  used,  and  the  work  shaped  as  shown.  The  bar 
should  be  turned,  edge  for  edge,  between  every  few 
blows,  if  the  grooves  are  wanted  of  the  same  depth. 
After  cutting  the  grooves  the  edge  is  shaped  the 
same  as  described  above. 

A  grab-hook,  sometimes  used  on  logging-chains, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  100.  This  is  forged  from  square 


74  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

stock  by  flattening  and  forming  one  end  into  an  eye 
and  pointing  the  other  end;  after  which  the  hook 
is  bent  into  shape. 


FIG.  99.  FIG.  ioo. 

Welded  Eye-hooks.  —  Hooks  sometimes  have  the 
eye  made  by  welding  instead  of  forging  from  the 
solid  stock.  Such  a  hook  is  shown  in  Fig.  101, 


FIG.  101, 

which  also  shows  the  stock  scarfed  and  bent  into 
shape  ready  for  closing  up  the  eye  for  the  weld,  and 
also  the  eye  ready  for  welding.  Before  heating  for 
the  weld,  the  eye  should  be  closed,  and  stock  at  the 
end  be  bent  close  together.  The  scarf  should  be 
pointed  the  same  as  for  any  other  round  weld. 


SIMPLE   FORGED    WORK. 


This  sort  of  eye  is  not  as  strong  as  a  forged  eye 
of  the  same  size  ;  but  is  usually  as  strong  as  the  rest 
of  the  hook,  as  the  eye  is  generally  considerably 
stronger  than  any  other  part. 

Hoisting-hooks.  —  A  widely  accepted  shape  for 
hoisting-hooks,  used  on 
cranes,  etc.,  is  shown  in 
Fig.  102.  The  shape  and 
formula  are  given  by  Henry 
R.  Town,  in  his  Treatise  on 
Cranes. 

T  =  working  load  in  tons 
of  2000  Ibs. 

A  =  diameter     of     round 
stock  used  to  form  hook. 

The  size  of  stock  to  use 
for  a  hook  to  carry  any 
particular  load  is  given  below.  The  capacity  of 
the  hook,  in  tons,  is  given  in  the  upper  line  —  the 
figures  in  the  lower  line,  directly  under  any  particu- 
lar load  in  the  upper  line,  giving  the  size  of  bar 
required  to  form  a  hook  to  be  used  at  that  load. 


FIG.  102. 


=i     i    i 


x} 


4568     10 


2\ 


2\ 


The  other  dimensions  of  the  hook  are  found  by 
the  following  formula,  all  the  dimensions  being  in 
inches  : 

D=   .5T  +1.25 

E=   .647+1.6 

F=  .33r+  .85. 


7  6  PORGE-PRACTICM. 

G=   .750 

O=    .3637+.  66 

Q=    .647+1.6 


L=i.o5A 
M=   .5A 
JV=    .85^-.  16 
[7=    .866A 

To  illustrate,  the  use  of  the  table,  suppose  a  hook 
is  wanted  to  raise  a  load  of  500  Ibs. 

In  the  line  marked  T  in  the  table  are  found  the 
figures  \,  denoting  a  load  of  one-quarter  of  a  ton,  or 
500  Ibs.  Under  this  are  the  figures  \\,  giving  the 
size  stock  required  to  shape  the  hook. 

The  different  dimensions  of  the  hook  would  be 
found  as  follows  : 


£=.64XV4  +  1.6"=  i.  76  =  i3//'  about. 
H  =  i.  08  A  =  i.  08  X  "/.!«=.  74   =V4  about. 


When  reducing  the  decimals,  the  dimensions 
which  have  to  do  only  with  the  bending  of  the  hook, 
that  is,  the  opening,  the  length,  the  length  of  point, 
etc.,  may  be  taken  as  the  nearest  i6th,  but  these 
dimensions  for  flattening  should  be  reduced  to  the 
nearest  32d  on  small  hooks. 


SIMPLE   FORGED    WORK.  77 

The  complete  dimensions  for  the  hook  in  ques- 
tion, 1000  Ibs.  capacity,  would  be  as  follows : 

7~) r3/ff  r* Tff  ZJ 3  /   //  J          23  /     // 

U=  I/a  ti  -   /4  L=     /32 

77—  T3/'r  O=     3/  "  /"— 29/    "  M—11/    " 

L    I  \  /4  "/32  /82 

F=     tt/ie"  Q=I3//'  7: 


'  16 

i    n 

32 


TT  —  9/ 

~    /  1 


Bolts.  —  Bolts  are  made  by  two  methods,  upset- 
ting and  welding.  The  first  method  is  the  more 
common,  particularly  on  small  bolts,  where  it  is 
nearly  always  used,  the  stock  being  upset  to 
form  the  head.  In  the  second  method  the  head  is 
formed  by  welding  a  ring  of  stock  around  the  stem. 

An  upset  head  is  stronger  than  a  welded  head, 
provided  they  are  both  equally  well  made. 

The  size  of  the  bolt  is  always  given  as  the  diame- 
ter and  length  of  the  shank,  or  stem.  Thus,  a 
\"  bolt,  6"  long,  means  a  bolt  having  a  shank  \"  in 
diameter,  and  6"  long  from  the  under  side  of  the 
head  to  the  end. 

Dimensions  of  bolt-heads  are  determined  from 
the  diameter  of  the  shank,  and  should  always  be 
the  same  size  for  the  same  diameter,  being  inde- 
pendent of  the  length. 

The  diameter  and  thickness  of  the  head  are  meas- 
ured as  shown  in  Fig.  103. 

The  dimensions  of  both  square  and  hexagonal 
heads  are  as  follows: 

D  =  diameter  of  head  across  the  flats  (short 
diameter)  . 

T  =  thickness  of  head. 

5  =  diameter  of  shank  of  bolt. 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


r=s. 

For  a  2"  bolt  the  dimensions  would  be  calcu- 
lated as  follows : 

Diameter   of   head  would    equal    i^"X2"  +  |"  = 

,17  " 

3/8      • 

Thickness  of  head  would  be  2". 

These  are  dimensions  for  rough  or  unfinished 
heads;  each  dimension  of  a  finished  head  is  Yle" 
less  than  the  same  dimension  of  the  rough  head. 


FIG.  103. 

Bolts  generally  have  the  top  corners  of  the  head 
rounded  or  chamfered  off  (Fig.  103).  This  can 
be  done  with  a  hand-hammer,  or  with  a  cupping- 


c 


FIG.  104.  FIG.  105. 

tool  (Fig.  104),  which  is  simply  a  set-hammer  with 
the  bottom  face  hollowed  out  into  a  bowl  or  cup 
shape. 


SIMPLE  FORGED  WORK.  79 

For  making  bolts  one  special  tool  is  required, 
the  heading-tool.  This  is  commonly  made  some- 
thing the  shape  of  Fig.  105,  although  for  a  "hurry- 
up"  bolt  sometimes  any  flat  strip  of  iron  with  a 
hole  punched  the  proper  size  to  admit  the  stem  of 
the  bolt  can  be  used. 

When  in  use  this  tool  is  placed  on  the  anvil 
directly  over  the  square  hardie-hole,  the  stem  of 
the  bolt  projecting  down  through  the  heading-tool 
and  hardie-hole  while  the  head  is  being  forged  on 
the  bolt. 

This  heading-tool  is  made  with  one  side  of  the 
head  flush  with  the  handle,  the  other  side  project- 
ing a  quarter  of  an  inch  or  so  above  it.  The  tool 
should  always  be  used  with  the  flat  side  on  the  anvil. 

Upset-head  Bolt. — An  upset  head  is  made  as  fol- 
lows :  The  stock  is  first  heated  to  a  high  heat  for  a 
short  distance  at  the  end,  and  upset  as  shown  at 
Fig.  1 06.  The  bolt  is  then  dropped 
through  the  heading  tool,  the  up- 
set  portion  projecting  above.  This 
upset  part  is  then  flattened  down 
on  the  tool  as.  shown  at  B,  and 
forged  square  or  hexagonal  on  the 
anvil.  FlG-  Io6- 

The  hole  in  the  heading-tool  should  be  large 
enough  to  allow  the  stock  to  slip  through  it  nearly 
up  to  the  upset  portion. 

Welded-head  Bolts. — A  welded-head  bolt  is  made 
by  welding  a  ring  of  square  iron  around  the  shank 
to  form  the  head,  which  is  then  shaped  in  a  heading- 
tool  the  same  as  an  upset  head.  A  piece  of  square 


8o 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


iron  of  the  proper  size  is  bent  into  a  ring,  but  not 
welded.  About  the  easiest  way  to  do  this  is  to  take 
a  bar  several  feet  long,  bend  the  ring  on  the  end,  and 
then  cut  it  off  as  shown  in  Fig.  107. 


FIG.  107. 

This  ring  is  just  large  enough,  when  the  ends  are 
slightly  separated,  to  slip  easily  over  the  shank. 

The  shank  is  heated  to  about  a  welding  heat,  the 
ring  being  slightly  cooler,  and  the  two  put  together 
as  shown  in  Fig.  107,  B.  The  head  is  heated  and 
welded,  and  then  shaped  as  described  above. 

When  welding  on  the  head  it  should  be  hammered 
square  the  first  thing,  and  not  pounded  round  and 
round.  It  is  much  easier  to  make  a  sound  weld  by 
forging  square. 

Care  must  be  used  when  taking  the  welding  heat 
to  heat  slowly,  otherwise  the  outside  of  the  ring  will 
be  burned  before  the  shank  is  hot  enough  to  stick. 

It  is  sometimes  necessary  when  heating  the  bolt- 
head  for  welding  to  cool  the  outside  ring  to  prevent 
its  burning  before  the  shank  has  been  heated  suffi- 
ciently to  weld ;  to  do  this  put  the  bolt  in  the  water 


SIMPLE    FORGED    WORK. 


81 


oideways  just  far  enough  to  cool  the  outside  edge  of 
the  ring  and  leave  the  central  part,  or  shank,  hot. 

Tongs. — Tongs  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of 
ways,  several  of  which  are  given  below. 

Common  flat- jaw  tongs,  such  as  are  used  for 
holding  stock  up  to  about  f  inch  thick,  may  be 
made  as  follows:  Stock  about  f  inch  square 
should  be  used.  This  is  first  bent  like  A,  Fig. 
1 08.  To  form  the  eye  the  bent  stock  is  laid 


FIG.  108. 

across  the  anvil  in  the  position  shown  at  B,  and 
flattened  by  striking  with  a  sledge  the  edge  of  the 
anvil,  forming  the  shoulder  for  the  jaw.  A  set- 
hammer  may  be  used  to  do  this  by  placing  the 
piece  with  the  other  side  up,  flat  on  the  face  of  the 
anvil,  and  holding  the  set-hammer  in  such  a  way  as 
to  form  the  shoulder  with  the  edge  of  the  hammer, 
the  face  of  the  hammer  flattening  the  eye. 


82  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The  long  handle  is  drawn  out  with  a  sledge, 
working  as  shown  at  C.  When  drawing  out  work 
this  way  the  forging  should  always  be  held  with 
the  straight  side  up,  the  corner  of  the  anvil  forming 
the  sharp  corner  up  against  the  shoulder  on  the 
piece.  If  the  piece  be  turned  the  other  side  up, 
there  is  danger  of  striking  the  projecting  shoulder 
with  the  sledge  and  knocking  the  work  out  of  shape. 

For  finishing  up  into  the  shoulder  a  set -hammer 
or  swage  should  be  used,  and  the  handles  should 
be  smoothed  off  with  a  flatter,  or  between  top  and 
bottom  swages.  The  jaw  may  be  flattened  as 
shown  at  D. 

The  inside  face  of  the  jaw  should  be  slightly 
creased  with  a  fuller,  as  this  insures  the  tongs  grip- 
ping the  work  firmly  with  the  sides  of  the  jaws,  and 
not  simply  touching  it  at  one  point  in  the  center,  as 
they  sometimes  do  if  this  crease  is  not  made. 

After  the  tongs  have  been  shaped,  and  are  fin- 
ished in  every  other  way,  the  hole  for  the  rivet 
should  be  punched.  The  rivet  should  drop  easily 
into  the  hole.  The  straight  end  of  the  rivet  should 
be  brought  to  a  high  heat,  the  two  parts  of  the 
tongs  placed  together  with  the  holes  in  line,  the 
rivet  inserted,  and  the  end  "headed  up."  Most  of 
the  heading  should  be  done  with  the  pene  end  of 
the  hammer.  After  riveting  the  tongs  will  prob- 
ably be  rather  "stiff";  opening  and  shutting  them 
several  times,  while  the  rivet  is  still  red-hot,  will 
leave  them  loose.  The  tongs  should  be  finished 
by  fitting  to  a  piece  of  stock  of  the  size  on  which 
they  are  to  be  used. 


SIMPLE    FORGED    WORK. 


Light  Tongs. — Tongs  may  be  made  from  flat  stock 
in  the  following  way :  A  cut  is  made  with  a  narrow 
fuller  at  the  right  distance  from  the  end  of  the  bar 
to  leave  enough  stock  to  form  the  jaw  between  the 
cut  and  the  end,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  109. 


FIG.  109. 

This  end  is  bent  over  as  shown  at  B  and  a  second 
fuller  cut  made,  shown  at  C,  to  form  the  eye.  The 
other  end  of  the  bar  is  drawn  out  to  form  the  handle, 
as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines.  The  jaw  is  shaped, 
the  rivet-hole  punched,  and  the  tongs  finished,  as 
at  D,  in  the  usual  way. 

Tongs  of  this  character  may  be  used  on  light 
work. 

Tongs  for  Round  Stock.  -  -  Tongs  for  holding 
round  stock  may  be  made  by  either  of  the  above 
methods,  the  operations 
in  making  being  the 
same,  with  the  exception 
of  shaping  the  jaws> 
which  may  be  done  in 
this  way:  A  top  fuller 
and  bottom  swage  are  FlG-  Bo- 

used, the   swage   being   of   the  size   to  which  it  is 
wished  to  finish  the  outside  of  the  jaws,  the  fuller 


84  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the  size  of  the  inside.  The  jaw  is  held  on  the  swage, 
and  the  fuller  placed  on  top  and  driven  down  on 
it,  Fig.  no,  forcing  the  jaw  to  take  the  desired 
shape,  shown  at  A.  The  final  fitting  is  done  as 
usual,  after  the  jaws  are  riveted  together. 

Welded  Tongs. — Tongs  with  welded  handles  are 
made  in  exactly  the  same  way  as  those  with  solid, 
drawn-out  handles  excepting  that,  in  place  of  draw- 
ing out  the  entire  length  of  the  handle,  a  short  stub 
only  is  forged,  a  few  inches  long,  and  to  this  is 
welded  a  bar  of  round  stock  to  form  the  handle. 
Fig.  in  shows  one  ready  for  welding. 


FIG.  in. 


Pick-up  Tongs.  -  -  No  particular  description  is 
necessary  for  making  pick-up  tongs.  The  tongs 
may  be  drawn  out  of  a  flat  piece  and  bent  as 
shown  in  Fig.  112. 


A 


FIG.  112. 


Bolt-tongs.  —  Bolt-tongs  are  easily  made  from 
round  stock,  although  square  may  be  used  to 
advantage. 

The  first  operation  is  to  bend  the  bar  in  the  shape 


SIMPLE    FORGED    WORK. 


«5 


shown  in  Fig.  113.  This  may  be  done  with  a  fuller 
over  the  edge  of  the  anvil,  as  shown  at  A.  When 
bending  the  extreme  end  of  the  jaw  the  bar  should 
be  held  almost  level  at  first,  and  gradually  swung 
down,  as  shown  by  the  arrow,  until  the  end  is  prop- 
erly bent. 


FIG.  113. 


FIG.  114. 


The  eye  may  be  flattened  with  the  set-hammer, 
and  the  part  between  the  jaw  proper  and  the  eye 
worked  down  to  shape  over  the  horn  and  on  the 
anvil  with  the  same  tool. 

The  jaw  proper  is  rounded  and  finished  with  a 
fuller  and  swage,  as  shown  in  Fig.  114. 

There  is  generally  a  tendency  for  the  spring  of 
the  jaw  to  open  up  too  much  in  forging.  This 
may  be  bent  back  into  shape  either  on  the  face  of 
the  anvil,  as  shown  at  A  (Fig.  115),  or  over  the 
horn,  as  at  B. 

Another  method  of  making  the  first  bend,  when 
starting  the  tongs,  is  shown  in  Fig.  116.  A  swage- 
block  and  fuller  are  here  used;  a  swage  of  the 


86 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


proper  size  could  of  course  be  used  in  place  of  the 
block. 


FIG.  115. 


FIG.  116. 


Ladle. — A  ladle,  similar  to  Fig.  117,  may  be 
made  of  two  pieces  welded  together,  one  piece 
forming  the  handle,  the  other  the  bowl. 

A  square  piece  of  stock  of  the  proper  thickness 
is  cut  and  "laid  out"  (or  marked  out)  like  Fig. 
118;  the  center  of  the  piece  being  first  found  by 
drawing  the  diagonals. 


FIG.  117. 


FIG.  1 1 8. 


A  circle  is  drawn  as  large  as  possible,  with  its 
center  on  the  intersection  of  the  diagonals;  the 
piece  is  cut  out  with  a  cold  chisel  to  the  circle, 
excepting  at  the  points  where  projections  are  left 
for  lips  and  for  a  place  to  weld  on  the  handle.  This 
latter  projection  is  scarfed  and  welded  to  the  strip 
forming  the  handle. 


SIMPLE  FORGED  WORK.  87 

The  bowl  is  formed  from  the  circular  part  by 
heating  it  carefully  to  an  even  yellow  heat  and 
placing  it  over  a  round  hole  in  a  swage-block  or 
other  object.  The  pene  end  of  the  hammer  is  used, 
and  the  pounding  done  over  the  hole  in  the  swage- 
block.  As  the  metal  in  the  center  is  forced  down- 
ward by  the  blow  of  the  hammer,  the  swage-block 
prevents  the  material  at  the  sides  from  following 
and  is  gradually  worked  into  a  bowl  shape. 

Fig.  119  shows  the  position  of  the  block  and  the 
piece  when  forging. 

The  bowl  being  shaped  properly,  the  lips  should 
be  formed,  and  the  top  of  the  bowl  ground  off  true. 


FIG.  119. 


FIG.  120. 


The  lips  may  be  formed  by  holding  the  part 
where  the  lips  are  to  be  against  one  of  the  smaller 
grooves  in  the  side  of  the  swage-block,  and  driving 
it  into  the  groove  by  placing  a  small  piece  of  round 
iron  on  the  inside  of  the  bowl  as  shown  in  Fig.  120. 

For  a  ladle  with  a  bowl  3^"  in  diameter,  the  diam- 
eter of  the  circle,  cut  from  the  flat  stock,  should  be 
about  4",  as  the  edges  of  the  piece  draw  in  some- 
what. Stock  for  other  sizes  should  be  in  about 
the  same  proportion.  Stock  should  be  about  \" 
thick. 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


FIG.  121. 


Machine-steel  should  he  used  for  making  the 
bowl.  If  ordinary  wrought  iron  is  used,  the  metal 
is  liable  to  split. 

Bowls. — Bowls,  and  objects  of  similar  shape, 
may  be  made  in  the  manner  described  above,  but 
care  must  be  used  not  to  do  too  much  hammering  in 
the  center  of  the  stock,  as  that  is  the  part  most 
liable  to  be  worked  too  thin. 

Chain-stop. — The  chain-stop,  shown  in  Fig.  121, 
will  serve  as  an  example  of  a  very  numerous  class 

of  forgings ;  that  is,  forg- 
ings  having  a  compara- 
tively large  projection 
on  one  side. 

Care  should  be  taken 
to  select  stock,  for  pieces 
of  this  sort,  that  will  work  into  the  proper  shape  with 
the  least  effort.  The  stock  should  be  as  thick  as 
the  thickest  part  of  the  forging, 
and  as  wide  as  the  widest  part. 
Stock,  in  this  particular  case, 
should  be  *"Xii". 

The  different  steps  in  making 
the  forging  are  shown  in  Fig. 
122.  First  two  cuts  are  made 
\\'f  apart,  as  shown  at  A ;  then 
these  cuts  are  widened  out  with 
a  fuller,  B.  The  ends  are  then 
forged  out  square,  as  at  C.  To 
finish  the  piece  the  hole  is 
punched  and  rounded  and  the 
round. 


FIG.  122. 
ends     finished 


SIMPLE    FORGED    WORK 


When    the    fuller    is    used   it    should    be    held 
slightly    slanting,    as    shown    in 
Fig.  123. 

This  forces  the  metal  toward 
the  central  part  and  leaves  a 
more  nearly  square  shoulder,  in 
place  of  the  slanting  shoulder 


FIG.  123. 


that  would  be  left  were  the  fuller  to  be  held  exactly 
upright. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

CALCULATION   OF  STOCK;    AND  MAKING  OF 
GENERAL  FORCINGS. 

Stock  Calculations  for  Forged  Work. — When  cal- 
culating the  amount  of  stock  required  to  make  a 
forging,  when  the  stock  has  its  original  shape 
altered,  there  is  one  simple  rule  to  follow:  Calcu- 
late the  volume  of  the  forging,  add  an  allowance 
for  stock  lost  in  forging,  and  cut  a  length  of  stock 
having  the  total  volume.  In  other  words,  the 
forging  contains  the  same  amount,  or  volume,  of 
metal,  no  matter  in  what  shape  it  may  be,  as  the 
original  stock;  an  allowance  of  course  being  made 


<  —.  3  5?jf  . 

«, 

IT 

r      i?«     j 

FIG.  124. 

for  the  slight  loss  by  scaling,  and  for  the  parts  cut 
off  in  making. 

Take  as  an  example  the  forging  shown  in   Fig. 

124,  to  determine  the  amount  of  stock  required  to 

90 


CALCULATION    OF   STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS.  9 1 

make  the  piece.  This  forging  could  be  made  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  chain-stop.  A  piece  of 
straight  stock  would  be  used  and  two  cuts  made 
and  widened  with  a  fuller,  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  125.  The  ends  on  either  side  of  the  cuts 


X 


FIG.  125. 

are  then  drawn  down  to  size,  as  shown  by  the 
dotted  lines,  the  center  being  left  the  size  of  the 
original  bar.  The  stock  should  be  \"  Xi",  as  these 
are  the  dimensions  of  the  largest  parts  of  the  forg- 
ing. For  convenience  in  calculating  the  forging 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts:  the  round  end 
A,  the  central  rectangular  block  B,  and  the  square 
end  C. 

The  block  B  will  of  course  require  just  2"  of 
stock. 

The  end  C  has  a  volume  of  £" 'xtf' 'X^' '=f  of  a 
cubic  inch. 

The  stock  (|"Xi")  has  a  volume  of  f  Xi" 
X  i"  =  !  of  a  cubic  inch  for  each  inch  of  length. 

To  find  the  number  of  inches  of  stock  required  to 
make  the  end  C,  the  volume  of  this  end  (f  cubic 
inch)  should  be  divided  by  the  volume  of  one  inch 
of  stock  (or  \  cubic  inch).  Thus,  £  -*•  \  =  \\" . 

It  will  therefore  require  \\"  of  stock  to  make 
the  end  C;  with  allowance  for  scaling,  if". 

The  end  A  is  really  a  round  shaft,  or  cylinder, 
4"  long  and  \"  in  diameter.  To  find  the  volume 


9  2  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

of  a  cylinder,  multiply  the  square  of  half  the  diame- 
ter by  3Y7,  and  then  multiply  this  result  by  the 
length  of  the  cylinder. 

The  volume  of  A  would  be  '/4  X  */4  X  3 1/1 X  4  =  *  !/14. 
And  the  amount  of  stock  required  to  make  A  would 
be  n/I4-*-  V2  =  i  4/7"  m  length,  which  is  practically 
equal  to  i5/8.  To  the  above  amount  of  stock  must 
be  added  a  small  amount  for  scaling,  allowing  alto- 
gether about  i3//'- 

The  stock  needed  for  the  different  parts  of  the 
forging  is  as  follows : 

Round  shaft  A if" 

Block  B 2" 

Square  shaft  C if" 


Total 


First  taking  a  piece  of  stock  i"Xi"X5f",  the 
cuts  would  be  made  for  drawing  out  the  ends  as 
shown  in  Fig.  125. 

In  such  a  case  as  the  above  it  is  not  always  neces- 
sary to  know  the  exact  amount  of  stock  to  cut. 
What  is  known  to  be  more  than  enough  stock  to 
make  the  forging  could  be  taken,  the  central  block 
made  the  proper  dimensions,  the  extra  metal 
worked  down  into  the  ends,  and  then  trimmed  off 
to  the  proper  length.  There  are  frequently  times, 
however,  when  the  amount  of  material  required 
must  be  calculated  accurately. 

Take  a  case  like  the  forging  shown  in  Fig.  126. 
Here  is  what  amounts  to  two  blocks,  each  2"X4" 
X6",  connected  by  a  round  shaft,  2"  in  diameter. 


CALCULATION  OF  STOCK;  GENERAL  FORCINGS. 


93 


To  make  this,  stock  2"  thick  and  4"  wide  should 
be  used,  starting  by  making  cuts  as  shown  in  Fig. 


-24- 


FIG.  126. 


127,   and  drawing  down  the  center  to   2"  round. 
It  is  of  course  necessary  to  know  how  far  apart  to 


FIG.  127. 

make  the  cuts  when  starting  to  draw  down  the 
center. 

The  volume  of  a  cylinder  2"  in  diameter  and 
24"  long  would  be  i"  X  i"X31/7"X24//  =  75 3/7  cubic 
inches,  which  maybe  taken  as  7  5 1/2  cubic  inches. 
For  each  inch  in  length  the  stock  would  have  a 
volume  of  4"X2"X  i"  =  8  cubic  inches.  There- 
fore it  would  require  75 l/2  +  8  =  97/16  inches  of  stock 
to  form  the  central  piece;  consequently  the  dis- 
tance between  cuts,  shown  at  A  in  Fig.  127,  would 
have  to  be  97/16/'.  Each  end  would  require  6"  of 
stock,  so  the  total  stock  necessary  would  be 

Any  forging  can  generally  be  separated  into  sev- 
eral simple  parts  of  uniform  shape,  as  was  done 
above,  and  in  this  form  the  calculation  can  be 


94  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

easily  made,  if  it  is  always  remembered  that  the 
amount  of  metal  remains  the  same,  and  in  forging, 
merely  the  shape,  and  not  the  volume,  is  altered. 

Weight  of  Forgings. — To  find  the  weight  of  any 
forging,  the  volume  may  first  be  found  in  cubic 
inches,  and  this  volume  multiplied  by  .2779,  the 
weight  of  wrought  iron  per  cubic  inch.  (If  the 
forging  is  made  of  steel,  multiply  by  .2836  in  place 
of  .2779.)  This  will  give  the  weight  in  pounds. 

Below  is  given  the  weight  of  both  wrought  and 
cast  iron  and  steel,  both  in  pounds  per  cubic  inch 
and  per  cubic  foot. 

Lbs.  per  Lbs.  per 

Cu.  Ft.  Cu.  In. 

Cast  iron  weighs 450  .2604 

Wrought  iron  weighs.  .   480  -2779 

Steel  weighs 490  .2936 

Suppose  it  is  required  to  find  the  weight  of  the 
forging  shown  in  Fig.  124.  We  had  a  volume  in 
A  of  n/u  cubic  inch,  in  C  of  3/4  cubic  inch,  and  in 
B  of  i  cubic  inch,  making  a  total  of  2 15/28  cubic 
inches.  If  the  forging  were  made  of  wrought  iron, 
it  would  weight  215/28X  .2779  =  .7  of  a  pound. 

The  forging  shown  in  Fig.  126  has  a  volume  in 
each  end  of  48  cubic  inches,  and  in  the  center  of 
75f  cubic  inches,  making  a  total  of  171^  cubic 
inches,  and  would  weigh,  if  made  of  wrought  iron, 
47.64  pounds. 

A  much  quicker  way  to  calculate  weights  is  to 
use  a  table  such  as  is  given  on  page  250.  As  steel 
is  now  commonly  used  for  making  forgings,  this 


CALCULATION    OF   STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS  95 

table  is  figured  for  steel.  The  weight  given  in  the 
table  is  for  a  bar  of  steel  of  the  dimensions  named 
and  one  foot  long.  Thus  a  bar  i"  square  weighs 
3.402  Ibs.  per  foot,  a  bar  sV'Xi"  weighs  11.9  Ibs. 
per  foot,  etc. 

To  calculate  the  weight  of  the  forging  shown  in 
Fig.  126,  proceed  as  follows:  Each  end  is  2//X4// 
and  6"  long,  so,  as  far  as  weight  is  concerned,  equal 
to  a  bar  4//X2//  and  12"  long.  From  the  table, 
a  bar  4"Xi"  weighs  13.6  Ibs.  for  each  foot  in 
length;  so  a  bar  4//X2//,  being  twice  as  thick, 
would  weigh  twice  as  much,  or  27.2  Ibs.,  and  as 
the  combined  length  of  the  two  ends  of  the  forging 
is  one  foot,  this  would  be  their  weight.  The  table 
shows  that  a  bar  2"  in  diame.ter  weighs  10.69  Ibs. 
for  every  foot  in  length;  consequently  the  central 
part  of  the  forging,  being  2  ft.  long,  would  weigh 
10.69X2,  or  21.38  Ibs.  The  total  weight  of  the 
entire  forging  would  be  48.58  Ibs.  (This  seems  to 
show  a  difference  between  this  weight  and  the 
weight  as  calculated  before,  but  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  before  the  weight  was  calculated  for 
wrought  iron,  while  this  calculation  was  made  for 
steel.) 

Finish. — Some  forgings  are  machined,  or  "fin- 
ished," after  leaving  the  forge-shop.  As  the  draw- 
ings are  always  made  to  represent  the  finished 
work,  and  give  the  finished  dimensions,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  make  an  allowance  for  this  finishing  when 
making  the  forging,  and  all  parts  which  have  to 
be  "finished,"  or  "machined,"  must  be  left  with 
extra  metal  to  be  removed  in  finishing. 


96 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


The  parts  required  to  be  finished  are  generally 
marked  on  the  drawing;  sometimes  the  finished 
surfaces  have  the  word  FINISH  marked  on  them; 
sometimes  the  finishing  is  shown  simply  by  the 
symbol  /,  as  used  in  Fig.  128,  showing  that  the 
shafts  and  pin  only  of  the  crank  are  to  be  finished. 


fr                                 E*                               > 

f 

** 

: 

<^' 
*fl/» 
/7X 

f                                  ^ 

•r 

f 

FIG.  128. 

When  all  surfaces  of  a  piece  are  to  be  finished 
the  words  FINISH-ALL-OVER  are  sometimes  marked 
on  the  drawing. 

The  allowance  for  finish  on  small  forgings  is  gen- 
erally about  Vie''  on  each  surface ;  thus  if  a  block 
were  wanted  to  finish  4"X2"Xi",  and  Via"  were 
allowed  for  finishing,  the  dimensions  of  the  forging 
should  be  4fc"X2i"Xii". 

On  a  forging  like  Fig.  126,  about  £"  allowance 
should  be  made  for  finish,  if  it  were  called  for; 
thus  the  diameter  of  the  central  shaft  would  be 
2^",  the  thickness  of  the  ends  2\" ,  etc.  On  larger 
work  \"  is  sometimes  allowed  for  machining. 

The  amount  of  finish  allowed  depends  to  a  large 
extent  on  the  way  the  forging  is  to  be  finished.  If 
it  is  necessary  to  finish  by  filing  the  forging  should 
be  made  as  nearly  to  size  as  possible,  and  having 
a  very  slight  amount  for  finish,  V32">  or  even  yw", 
being  enough  in  some  cases. 


CALCULATION   OF    STOCK;     GENERAL   FORCINGS. 


97 


It  is  of  course  necessary  to  take  this  into  account 
when  calculating  stock,  and  the  calculation  made 
for  the  forging  with  the  allowance  for  finish  added 
to  the  drawing  dimensions  and  not  simply  for  the 
finished  piece. 

Crank-shafts.  -  -  There  are  several  methods  of 
forging  crank-shafts,  but  only  the  common  com- 
mercial method  will  be  given  here. 

When  forgings  were  mostly  made  of  wrought  iron, 
cranks  were  welded  up  of  several  pieces.  One 
piece  was  used  for  each  of  the  end  shafts,  one  piece 
for  each  cheek,  or  side,  and  another  piece  for  the 
crank-pin.  Mild-steel  cranks  are  now  more  uni- 
versally used  and  forged  from  one  solid  piece  of 
stock.  The  drawing  for  such  a  crank  is  given  in 
Fig.  128;  finish  to  be  allowed  only  as  shown,  that 
is,  only  on  crank-pin  and  shafts.  The  forgings,  as 
made,  will  appear  like  the  outlines  in  Fig.  129. 
The  metal  in  the  throat  of  the  crank  is  generally 
removed  by  drilling  a  line  of  holes  and  then  sawing 
slots  where  the  sides  of  the  crank  cheeks  should 
come,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  Fig.  129. 


A   •  • 

1 

0 

*                            "• 

r*^ 

1 

FIG.  129. 

The  central  block  is  then  easily  knocked  out.  This 
drilling  and  sawing  are  done  in  the  machine-shop. 
This  throat  can  be  formed  by  chopping  out  the 


98  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

surplus  metal  with  a  hot  chisel,  but  on  small  cranks, 
such  as  here  shown,  it  is  generally  cheaper  in  a  well- 
equipped  shop  to  use  the  first  method. 

The  first  step  is  to  calculate  the  amount  of  stock 
required.  Stock  i^"X4"  should  be  used.  The 
ends,  A  and  B,  should  be  left  i|"  in  diameter  to 
allow  for  finishing.  The  end  A  contarhs  10.13 
cubic  inches.  Each  inch  of  stock  contains  6  cubic 
inches.  It  would  therefore  require  1.7"  of  stock 
to  form,  this  end  provided  there  were  no  waste  from 
scale  in  heating.  This  waste  does  take  place,  and 
must  be  allowed  for,  so  it  will  be  safe  to  take  about 
2"  of  stock  for  this  end.  E  contains  5.22  cubic 
inches,  and  would  require  .87"  of  stock  without 
allowance  for  scale.  About  \\"  should  be  taken. 
The  stock  should  then  be  7^"  long.  The  first  step 
is  to  make  cuts  i\"  from  one  end  and  2"  from  the 
other,  and  widen  out  these  cuts  with  a  fuller,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  130. 


FIG.  130.  FIG.  131. 

These  ends  are  then  forged  out  round  in  the  man- 
ner illustrated  in  Fig.  131.  The  forging  should  be 
placed  over  the  corner  of  the  anvil  in  the  position 
shown,  the  blows  striking  upon  the  corner  of  the 
piece  as  indicated,  As  the  end  gradually  straightens 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS. 


99 


out,  the  other  end  of  the  piece  is  slowly  raised  into 
the  position  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  the 
shaft  hammered  down  round  and  finished  up  be- 
tween swages. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  spread  the  cuts  properly 
before  drawing  down  the  ends,  otherwise  a  bad 
cold-shut  will  be  formed.  If 
the  cuts  are  left  without  spread- 
ing, the  metal  will  act  some- 
what after  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  132.  The  top  part  of 
the  bar,  as  it  is  worked  down, 
will  gradually  fold  over,  leav- 
ing, when  hammered  down  to  Fl&.  132. 
size,  a  bad  cold-shut,  or  crack,  such  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  132.  When  the  metal  starts  to  act  this  way, 
as  shown  by  the  upper  sketch  in  132,  the  fault  may 
be  remedied  by  trimming  off  the  corner  along  the 
dotted  line.  This  must  always  be  done  as  soon  as 
any  tendency  to  double  over  is  detected. 

Double-throw  Cranks. — Multiple-throw  cranks   are 


FIG.  133. 

first   forged   flat,   rough   turned,    then  heated  and 
twisted  into  shape. 

The    double-throw    crank,    shown    in    Fig.    133, 


100 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


would  be  first  forged  as  shown  in  Fig.  134  ;  the  parts 
shown  dotted  would  then  be  cut  out  with  the  drill 
and  saw,  as  described  above. 

After  the  pins  and  shafts  have  been  rough  turned 
— that  is,  turned  round,  but  left  as  large  as  possi- 


p 

^  L 

J  r 

i 

1 

i 

i 

1 

,  i 

1    ! 

i 

B 

A 

FIG. 

134- 

ble — the  crank  is  returned  to  the  forge-shop,  where 
it  is  heated  red-hot  and  twisted  into  the  finished 
shape. 

When  twisting,  the  crank  is  gripped  just  to  one 
side  of  the  central  bearing,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
line  A.  This  may  be  done  with  a  vise  or  wrench, 
if  the  crank  is  small,  or  the  crank  may  be  placed 
on  the  anvil  of  a  steam-hammer  and  the  hammer 
lowered  down  on  it  to  hold  it  in  place. 

The  other  end  of  the  crank  is  gripped  on  the  line 
B  and  twisted  into  the  required  shape. 


FIG.  135. 

A  wrench  of  the  shape  shown  in  Fig.  135  is  very 
convenient  for  doing  work  of  this  character.     It 


CALCULATION   OF   STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS.  IO1 

may  be  formed  by  bending  a  U  out  of  flat  stock, 
bent  edgewise,  and  welding  on  a  handle. 

Three-throw     Crank. — Fig.     136     shows    what     is 
known  as  a  "three-throw"  crank.     The  forging  for 






1  

v^ 

1  7  —  3  

f 

'if 

-1      f    J 

^ 



~^ 

__ 

2  / 

£ 

. 

.^ 



••*!£ 

l 

<-wn 

1-7V 

1 

-rU^ 

4  8s  • 

FIG.  136. 

this  is  first  made  as  shown  by  the  solid  lines  in  Fig. 
137.     The    forging    is    drilled    and    sawed    in    the 


.1 

i    j 

1 

In 

n 

*  !         ' 

i 

1 

at/1 

H       5V 

01  >* 

». 

3J<  — 
—  ts"  

-T-83*- 

<  8X—~ 

FIG.  137. 

machine-shop  to  the  dotted  lines,  and  pins  rough 
turned,  being  left  as  large  as  possible.  The  forging 
is  returned  to  the  forge-shop,  heated,  and  bent  into 
the  shape  of  the  finished  crank.  It  is  then  sent 
to  the  machine-shop  and  finished  to  size.  Four- 
throw  cranks  are  also  made  in  this  manner. 

The  slots  are  sometimes  cut  out  in  the  forge-shop 
with  a  hot  chisel,  but,  particularly  on  small  work, 
it  is  generally  more  economical  to  have  them  sawed 
out  in  the  machine-shop.  This  is  especially  so  of 
multiple-throw  cranks,  which  must  be  twisted. 


102 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


Knuckles. — There  is  a  large  variety  of  forgings 
which  can  be  classed  under  one  head — such  forg- 
ings as  the  forked  end  of  a  marine  connecting-rod, 
the  knuckle-joints  sometimes  used  in  valve-rods, 
and  others  of  this  character,  such  as  illustrated  in 
Figs.  139,  140,  141,  E. 


FIG.  141. 


Connecting-rod  End. — Fig.  138  shows  the  shaped 
end  often  used  on  the  crank  end  of  connecting- 
rods.  The  method  of  forming  this  is  the  same  as 
the  first  step  in  forging  the  other  pieces  above  men- 
tioned. 

The  stock  used  for  making  this  should  be  as  wide 


CALCULATION    OF   STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS. 


10.3 


as  B  and  somewhat  more  than  twice  as  thick  as  A. 
The  first  step  is  to  make  two 
fuller  cuts  as  shown  at  A,  Fig. 

142,  using  a  top  and  bottom 
fuller    and    working    in    both 
sides  at  the  same  time.     When 
working  in  both  sides  of  a  bar 
this  wray,  it  should  be  turned 
frequently,   bringing  first   one 
side,    then    the    other,    upper- 
most.    In   this   way   the   cuts 
will   be   worked   to   the   same 
depth  on  both  sides,   while  if 
the  work  is  held  in  one  posi- 
tion, one  cut  will  generally  be 
deeper  than  the  other.     After 
the  cuts   are  made,   the   left- 
hand  end  of  the  bar  is  drawn 
out  to  the  proper  size  and  the 

right-hand  end  punched  and  split  like  B.  Some- 
times when  the  length  D,  Fig.  138,  is  compara- 
tively short  and  the  stock  wide,  instead  of  being 
punched  and  split,  the  end  of  the  bar  is  cut  out,  as 
shown  at  C,  Fig.  142,  with  a  right  angle  or  curved 
cutter. 

The  split  ends  are  spread  out  into  the  position 
shown  at  D,  and  drawn  down  to  size  over  the  cor- 
ner of  the  anvil,  in  the  manner  illustrated  in  Fig. 

143.  These    ends    are    then   bent   back    into    the 
proper   position   for   the   finished   forging.     Gener- 
ally when  the  ends  are  worked  out  and  bent  back 
in  this  manner,  a  bump  is  left  like  that  indicated 


FIG.  142. 


104 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


by  the  arrow-point  at  E,   Fig.    142.       This  should 
be  trimmed  off  along  the  dotted  line. 

Knuckle. — The    knuckle,   Fig.    139,   is    started    in 
exactly  the  same  way,  but  after  being  forged  out 


FIG.  143.  FIG.  144. 

straight,  as  above,  the  tips  of  these  ends  are  bent 
down,  forming  a  U-shaped  loop  of  approximately 
the  shape  of  the  finished  knuckle.  A  bar  of  iron 
of  the  same  dimension  at  the  inside  of  the  finished 
knuckle  is  then  inserted  between  the  sides  of  the 
loop  and  the  sides  closed  down  flat  over  it,  Fig. 
144. 

Forked-end  Connecting-rod. — Fig.  140  is  made  in 
the  same  manner.  The  shaft  5  should  be  drawn 
down  into  shape  and  rounded 
up  before  the  other  end  is 
split.  After  the  split  ends 
have  been  bent  back 
straight,  the  shoulder  A 
should  be  finished  up  with 
a  fuller  in  the  manner  shown 
in  Fig.  145.  The  rounded 


FIG.  145. 


ends  B-B  should  be  formed  before  the  piece  is  bent 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS.  10$ 

into  shape.  The  final  bending  can  be  done  over  a 
cast-iron  block  of  the  right  shape  and  size  if  the 
forging  is  a  large  one  and  several  of  the  same  kind 
are  wanted. 

Hook  with  Forked  End. — Fig.  141,  £  is  a  forging 
which  also  conies  in  this  general  class.  This  is 
made  from  f  "  square  stock.  The  end  of  the  bar  is 
first  drawn  down  to  3/16"  round.  This  round  end  is 
put  through  the  hole  of  a  heading-tool,  and  the 
square  part  is  split  with  a  hot  chisel,  the  cut  wid- 
ened out,  and  the  sides  hammered  out  straight  on 
the  tool.  The  different  steps  are  shown  in  Fig. 
141. 

Wrench,  Open-end. — Open-end  wrenches  of  the 
general  class  shown  in  Fig.  146  may  be  made  in 


FIG.  146. 

several  different  ways.  It  would  be  possible  to 
make  this  by  the  same  general  method  followed 
for  making  the  forked  end  of  the  connecting-rod 
described  above.  Ordinary  size  wrenches  are  more 
easily  made  in  the  way  illustrated  in  Fig.  147. 

A  piece  of  stock  is  used,  wide  enough  and  thick 
enough  to .  form  the  head  of  the  wrench.  This  is 
worked  in  on  both  sides  with  a  fuller  and  the  head 
rounded  up  as  shown.  A  hole  is  then  punched 
through  the  head  and  the  piece  cut  out  to  form 
the  opening,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  at  B. 

This  wrench  could  also  be  made  by  bending  up 


io6 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


a  U  from    the  proper  size  flat    stock   and  welding 
on  a  handle. 


FIG.  147. 

The  solid-forged  wrench  is  the  more  satisfactory. 
Socket- wrench.  -  -  The     socket- wrench,   shown    in 
Fig.    148,   may  be  made  in  several  ways.     About 

the  easiest,  on  "hurry- 
up"  work,  is  the  method 
shown  in  Fig.  149.  Here 
a  stub  is  shaped  up  the 
same  size  and  shape  as 
the  finished  hole  is  to  be.  A  ring  is  bent  up  of  thin 
flat  iron  and  this  ring  welded  around  the  stub. 


FIG.  148. 


FIG.  149. 

The  width  of  the  ring  should  of  course  be  equal  to 
the  length  of  the  hole  plus  the  lap  of  the  weld. 

When   finishing   the   socket,  a  nut  or  bolt-head 
the  size  the  wrench   is   intended  to  fit  should  be 


CALCULATION  OF    STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCINGS.  107 

placed  in   the    hole  and  the  socket  finished  over 
this  between  swages. 

A  better  way  of  making  wrenches  of  this  sort  is 
to  make  a  forging  having 
the  same  dimensions  as 
the  finished  wrench,  but 
with  the  socket  end 
forged  solid.  The  socket 
end  should  then  be 
drilled  to  a  depth  slightly 
greater  than  the  socket  is 
wanted.  The  diameter  of 
the  drill  should  be,  as 

shown  in  Fig.  150,  equal  to  the  shortest  diameter  of 
the  hole. 

After  drilling,  the  socket  end  is  heated  red-hot 
and  a  punch  of  the  same  shape  as  the  intended  hole 
driven  into  it.  The  end  of  the  punch  should  be 
square,  with  the  corners  sharp.  As  the  punch  is 
driven  in,  the  corners  will  shave  off  some  of  the 
metal  around  the  hole  and  force  it  to  the  bottom 
of  the  hole,  thus  making  it  necessary  to  have  the 
drilled  hole  slightly  deeper  than  the  socket  hole  is 
intended  to  finish. 

While  punching,  the  wrench  may  be  held  in  a 
heading  tool,  or  if  the  wrench  be  double-ended,  in  a 
pair  of  special  tongs,  as  shown  in  Fig.  150. 

Split  Work. — There  is  a  great  variety  of  thin 
forgings,  formed  by  splitting  a  bar  and  bending 
the  split  parts  into  shape.  For  convenience,  these 
can  be  called  split  forgings. 

Fig.   151  is  a  fair  sample  of  this  kind  of  work. 


io8 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


This  piece  could  be  made  by  U.king  two  flat  strips 
and  welding  them  across  each  other,  but,  particu- 


FIG.  151. 


FIG.  152. 


larly  if  the  work  is  very  thin,  this  is  rather  a  diffi- 
cult weld  to  make. 

An  easier  way  is  to  take  a  flat  piece  of  stock  of 
the  proper  thickness  and  cut  it  with  a  hot  chisel, 
as  shown  by  the  solid  lines  in  Fig.  152.  The  four 
ends  formed  by  the  splits  are  then  bent  at  right 
angles  to  each  other  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines, 
and  hammered  out  pointed  as  required. 

If  machine  steel  stock  is  used,  it  is  not  generally 
necessary  to  take  any  particular  precautions  when 


FIG.  153. 

splitting  the  bar,  but  if  the  material  used  is  wrought 
iron,  it  is  necessary  to  punch  a  small  hole  through 


CALCULATION   OF   STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS. 


109 


the  bar  where  the  end  of  the  cut  comes,  to  prevent 
the  split  from  extending  back  too  far. 

Fig.  153  shows  several  examples  of  this  kind  of 
work.  The  illustrations  show  in  each  case  the 
finished  piece,  and  also  the  method  of  cutting  the 
bar.  The  shaded  portions  of  the  bar  are  cut  away 
completely. 

Expanded  or  Weldless  Eye.  —  Another  forging  of 
the  same  nature  is  the  expanded  eye  in  Fig.  154. 


FIG.  154. 


FIG.  155. 


To  make  this,  a  flat  bar  is  forged  rounding  on  the 
end,  punched  and  split  as  shown.  The  split  is 
widened  out  by  driving  a  punch,  or  other  tapering 
tool  into  it,  and  the  forging  finished  by  working 
over  the  horn  of  the  anvil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  155. 

If  the  dimensions  of  the  eye  are  to  be  very  accu- 
rate, it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  calculation  for 
the  length  of  the  cut.  This  can  be  done  as  follows: 
Suppose  the  forging,  for  the  sake  of  convenience  in 
calculating,  to  be  made  up  of  a  ring  3"  inside  diame- 
ter and  sides  \"  wide,  placed  on  the  end  of  a  bar 
\\"  wide.  The  first  thing  is  to  determine  the  area 
of  this  ring.  To  do  this  find  the  area  of  the  out- 


IIO  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

side  circle  and  subtract  from  it  the  area  of  the 
inside  circle.  (Areas  may  be  found  in  table,  page 
2430 

Area  of  outside  circle  .............     =12.57  SCL-  m- 

"     "  inside       "     .............          7.07 


"     " 


=    5-5o    "    " 


2// 
3 


The  stock,  being  i£"  wide,  has  an  area  of 
sq.  in.  for  every  inch  in  length,  and  it  will  take  3 
of  this  stock  to  form  the  ring,  as  we  must  take  an 
amount  of  stock  having  the  same  area  as  the  ring. 
This  will  be  practically  3n/l6". 

The  stock  should  be  punched  and  split,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  154.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  punch- 
holes  are  f"  from  the  end,  while  the  stock  is  to  be 
drawn  to  \" .  The  extra  amount  is  given  to  allow 
for  the  hammering  necessary  to  form  the  eye. 

Weldless  Rings. — Weldless  rings  can  be  made  in 
the  above  way  by  splitting  a  piece  of  flat  stock  and 
expanding  it  into  a  ring,  or  they  can  be  made  as 
follows:  The  necessary  volume  of  stock  is  first 
forged  into  a  round  flat  disc  and  a  hole  is  punched 
through  the  center.  The  hole  should  be  large 
enough  to  admit  the  end  of  the  horn  of  the  anvil. 
The  forging  is  then  placed  on  the  horn  and  worked 
to  the  desired  size  in  the  manner  indicated  in 
Fig.  i55-  Fig.  156  shows  the  different  steps  in 
the  process — the  disc,  the  punched  disc,  and  the 
finished  ring. 

Rings  of  this  sort  are  made  very  rapidly  under 
the  steam-hammer  by  a  slight  modification  of  this 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS. 


Ill 


method.     The  discs   are  shaped  and  punched  and 
then    forged    to    size    over    a    ' '  mandril. "      A    U- 


FIG.  156. 


FIG.  157. 


shaped  rest  is  placed  on  the  anvil  of  the  steam- 
hammer,  the  mandril  is  slipped  through  the  hole 
in  the  disc  and  placed  on  the  rest,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  157.  The  blows  come  directly  down  upon 
the  top  side  of  the  ring,  it  being  turned  between 
each  two  blows.  The  ring  of  course  rests  only  upon 
the  mandril.  As  the  hole  increases  in  size,  larger 
and  larger  mandrils  are  used,  keeping  the  mandril 
as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  size  as  the  hole. 

Forging  a  Hub,  or  Boss. — Fig.  158  is  an  example 
of  a  shape  very  often  met  with  in  machine  forging: 
a  lever,  or  some  flat  bar  or  shank,  with  a  "boss" 


FIG.  158. 


FIG.  159. 


formed  on  one  end.  This  may  be  made  in  two 
ways — either  by  doubling  over  the  end  of  the  bar, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  159,  and  making  a  fagot-weld  of 
sufficient  thickness  to  form  the  boss,  or  by  taking  a 
bar  large  enough  to  form  the  boss  and  drawing 
down  the  shank.  The  second  method  will  be 


112 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


described,  as  no  particular  directions  are  necessary 
for  the  weld,  and  after  welding  up  the  end,  the 
boss  is  rounded  up  in  the  same  way  in  either  case. 
The  stock  should  be  large  enough  to  form  the  boss 
without  any  upsetting. 

A  bar  of  stock  is  taken,  for  the  forging  shown 
above,  2"  wide  and  2"  thick.  The  first  step  is  to 
make  a  cut  about  2"  from  the  end,  with  a  fuller, 
like  A,  Fig.  160. 


FIG.  160. 

The  stock,  to  the  right  of  the  cut,  is  then  flat- 
tened down  and  drawn  out  to  size,  as  shown  at  B. 
In  drawing  out  the  stock,  certain  precautions  must 
be  taken  or  a  "  cold-shut ' '  will  be  formed  close  to 
the  boss.  If  the  metal  is  allowed  to  flatten  down 
into  shape  like  Fig.  C,  the  corner  at  X  will  over- 
lap, and  work  into  the  metal,  making  a  crack  in 
the  work  which  will  look  like  Fig.  E,  This 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS.  113 

is  quite  a  common  fault,  and  whenever  a  crack 
appears  in  a  forging  close  to  a  shoulder,  it  is  gener- 
ally caused  by  something  of  this  sort — that  is,  by 
some  corner  or  part  of  the  metal  lapping  over  and 
cutting  into  the  forging.  When  one  of  these  cracks 
appears,  the  only  way  to  remedy  the  evil  is  to  cut 
it  out  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  in  E.  For  this 
purpose  a  hot-chisel  is  sometimes  used,  with  a 
blade  formed  like  a  gouge. 

Fig.  D  shows  the  proper  way  to  draw  out  the 
stock;  the  corner  in  question  should  be  forged 
away  from  the  boss  in  such  a  manner  as  to  grad- 
ually widen  the  cut.  The  bar  should  now  be 
rounded  up  by  placing  the  work  over  the  corner  of 
the  anvil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  161.  First  forge  off  the 


FIG.  161. 

corners  and  then  round  up  the  boss  in  this  way. 
To  finish  around  the  corner  formed  between  the 
boss  and  the  flat  shank,  a  set-hammer  should  be 
used.  Sometimes  the  shank  is  bent  away  from 
the  boss  to  give  room  to  work,  and  a  set-hammer, 
or  swage,  used  for  rounding  the  boss  as  shown, 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


After  the  boss  is  finished,  the  shank  is  straightened. 
The  boss  should  be  smoothed  up  with  a  swage. 

Ladle   Shank. — The   ladle    shank,   shown    in   Fig. 
162,  may  be  made  in  several  ways.     It  is  possible 

to  make  it  solid  without 
any  welds,  or  the  handle 
may  be  welded  on  a  flat 
bar  and  the  bar  bent  into 
a  ring  and  welded,  or  the 
ring  and  handle  may  be 
forged  in  one  piece  and 
the  ring  closed  together  by  welding.  The  last- 
mentioned  method  is  as  follows :  The  stock  should 
be  about  i"  square.  It  is  necessary  to  make  a 


FIG.  162. 


FIG.  163. 

rough  calculation  of  the  amount  of  this  size  stock 
required  to  form  the  ring  of  the  shank.     If  the  ring 


CALCULATION    OF    STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS.  115 

were  made  of  f'Xi"  stock,  about  23!"  would  be 
required;  now  as  i"Xi"  stock  is  the  same  width 
and  about  two  and  one-half  times  as  thick  as 
f'Xi"  stock,  every  inch  of  the  i"Xi"  will  make 
about  r2\"  of  f'Xi",  consequently  about  9^"  of 
the  i"  square  will  be  required  to  form  the  ring. 

A  fuller  cut  is  made  around  the  bar,  as  shown 
at  A,  Fig.  163.  This  should  be  made  about  9^" 
from  the  end  of  the  bar.  The  left-hand  end  of  the 
bar  is  drawn  down  to  \"  in  diameter  to  form  the 
handle.  If  the  work  is  being  done  under  a  steam 
or  power  hammer,  enough  stock  may  be  drawn 
out  to  form  the  entire  handle,  but  if  working  on 
the  anvil,  it  will  probably  be  more  satisfactory  to 
draw  out  only  enough  stock  to  make  a  "stub "4"  or 
5"  long.  To  this  stub  may  be  welded  a  round  bar 
to  form  the  handle. 

After  drawing  out  the  handle,  the  q\"  square 
end  of  the  stock  is  split,  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines  at  B.  These  split  ends 
are  spread  apart,  as  shown 
at  C,  forged  into  shape,  and 
bent  back  to  the  position 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 

The  ring  is  completed  by  FlG>  l64' 

cutting  the  ends  to  the  proper  length,  scarring, 
bending  into  shape,  and  welding,  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  164. 

If  for  any  reason  it  is  necessary  to  make  a  forg- 
ing of  this  kind  without  a  weld  in  the  ring,  it  may 
be  done  by  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  165.  The 
split  in  this  case  should  not  extend  to  the  end  of  the 


u6 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


bar.     About 
at  the  end. 


'  or  |"  of  stock  should  be  left  uncut 
This   split   is  widened  out   and  the 


FIG.  165. 

sides  drawn  down  and  shaped  into  a  ring  as  desired. 
Starting-lever. — The  lever  shown  in  Fig.  166  is  a 


FIG.  166 

shape  sometimes  used  for   levers  used  to  turn  the 

fly-wheels  of    engines  or  other    heavy  wheels    by 

gripping  the  rim. 

The  method  used  in  making  the  lever  is  shown 

in  Fig.   167.      The  end  is  first  drawn  down  round 

and  the  handle  formed. 
The  other  end  is  then 
split,  forged  down  to 
size,  and  bent  at  right 
angles  to  the  handle, 
u  After  trimming  to  the 


n 


B    j-,  proper    length,    the    flat 

'    ends  are  bent  into  shape. 

If  this  shaped  end  is 
very  heavy,  it  may  be  necessary  to  forge  it  in  the 


FIG.  167. 


CALCULATION   OF    STOCK;    GENERAL    FORCINGS.  117 

shape  of  a  solid  block,  as  shown  in  Fig.    168,  and 
then    either    work    in    the    depression 
shown   by   the    dotted   lines,    with   a 

fuller  and  set-hammers,  or  the  dotted 

FIG.  168. 
line  may  be  cut  out  with  a  hot-chisel. 

Moulder's    Trowel. — The    moulder's  trowel  shown 
in  Fig.  169  gives  an  example  of  the  method  used  in 


FIG.  169. 

making  forgings  of  a  large  class,  forgings  having  a 
wide  thin  face  with  a  stem,  comparatively  small, 
forged  at  one  end. 

The  stock  to  be  used  for  the  trowel  shown  should 
be  about  £"Xi".  This  is  thick  enough  to  allow 
for  the  formation  of  the  ridge  at  R. 


FIG.  170. 

Fig.  170  shows  the  general  method  employed. 
The  forging  is  started  by  making  nicks  like  A,  with 
the  top  and  bottom  fuller.  One  end  is  drawn  down 
to  form  the  tang  for  the  handle.  This  should  not 


1 1 8  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

be  forged  down  pointed,  as  required  when  com- 
pleted, but  the  entire  length  of  handle  should  be 
forged  square  and  about  the  size  the  largest  part  is 
required  to  finish  to.  The  handle  is  then  bent  up 
at  right  angles,  as  at  B,  and  the  corner  forged 
square  in  the  same  manner  that  the  corner  of  a 
bracket  is  shaped  up  sharp  and  square  on  the  out- 
side. 

After  this  corner  is  formed,  the  blade  is  drawn 
down  to  size  on  the  face  of  the  anvil. 

When  flattening  out  the  blade,  in  order  to  leave 
the  ridge  shown  at  R,  Fig.  169,  the  work  should 
be  held  as  shown  at  C,  Fig.  1 70.  Here  the  handle 
is  held  pointing  down  and  against  the  side  of  the 
anvil.  By  striking  directly  down  on  the  work,  and 
covering  the  part  directly  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil 
with  the  blows,  all  of  the  metal  on  the  anvil  will  be 
flattened  down,  leaving  the  metal  not  resting  on 
the  anvil  unworked.  By  swinging  the  piece  around 
into  a  reverse  position  the  other  edge  of  the  blade 
may  be  thinned  down.  If  care  be  taken  to  hold 
the  trowel  in  the  proper  position  while  thinning 
out  the  blade,  a  small  triangular-shaped  piece  next 
the  handle  will  be  left  thicker  than  the  rest  of  the 
blade.  This  raised  part  will  form  the  ridge  shown 
at  R,  Fig.  169. 

The  same  result  may  be  obtained  by  placing  the 
trowel,  other  side  up,  on  the  face  of  the  anvil  and 
using  a  set-hammer,  or  flatter,  to  thin  out  the  blade. 

Welded  Brace.— Fig.  171  shows  a  form  of  brace, 
or  bracket,  sometimes  used  for  holding  swinging 
signs  and  for  various  other  purposes. 


CALCULATION   Of   STOCK;    GENERAL   FORCING?. 


119 


The  bracket  in  this  case  is  made  of  round  stock; 
but  the  same  method  may  be  followed  in  making 
one  of  flat  or  square  material. 


FIG.  171. 

The  stock  is  first  scarfed  on  one  end  and  this  end 
doubled  over,  forming  a  loop,  as  shown  in  Fig.  172. 


FIG.  172. 

The  loop  is  welded  and  then  split,  the  ends  straight- 
ened out  and  flattened  into  the  desired  shape  as 
illustrated. 


FIG.   173. 

Welded  Fork. — The  welded  fork,  shown  in  Fig. 
173,  is  made  in  the  same  way  as  the  brace  de- 
scribed above. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


STEAM-HAMMER  WORK. 

General  Description  of  Steam-hammer. — The  gen- 
eral shape  of  small  and  medium  steam-hammers 

is  shown  in  Fig.  174. 
This  type  is  known  as 
a  single  -  frame  ham- 
mer. 

The  size  of  a  steam- 
hammer  is  determined 
by  the  weight  of  its 
falling  parts ;  thus  the 
term  a  4oo-lb.  ham- 
mer would  mean  that 
the  total  weight  of 
the  ram,  hammer-die, 
and  piston-rod  was  400 
Ibs. 

Steam-hammers  are 
made  in  this  general 
style  from  200  Ibs.  up. 

The  anvil  is  entire- 
ly separate  from  the 


FIG.  174. 
separate  foundation. 


frame  of  the  hammer, 
and  each  rests   on  a 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK.  121 

The  foundation  for  the  frame  generally  takes  the 
shape  of  two  blocks  of  timber  or  masonry  capped 
with  timber — one  in  front  and  one  behind  the  anvil 
block.  The  anvil  foundation  is  placed  between 
the  two  blocks  of  the  frame  foundation,  and  is 
larger  and  heavier. 

The  object  of  separating  the  anvil  and  frame  is  to 
allow  the  anvil  to  give  under  a  heavy  blow  with- 
out disturbing  the  frame  or  its  foundation. 

Hammer-dies. — The  dies  most  commonly  used  on 
steam-hammers  have  flat  faces ;  the  upper  or  ham- 
mer die  being  the  same  width,  but  sometimes 
shorter  in  length  than  the  lower  or  anvil  die. 

Tool-steel  makes  the  best  dies,  but  chilled  iron 
is  also  used  to  a  very  large  extent.  Sometimes, 
for  forming  work,  even  gray  iron  castings  are  used. 
Flat  dies  made  of  tool-steel  are  sometimes  used 
without  hardening.  Dies  made  this  way,  when 
worn,  may  be  faced  off  and  used  again  without 
the  bother  of  annealing  and  rehardening. 

For  special  work  the  dies  are  made  in  various 
shapes,  the  faces  being  more  or  less  in  the  shape  of 
the  work  to  be  formed.  When  the  die-faces  aie 
shaped  to  the  exact  form  of  the  finished  piece,  the 
work  is  known  as  drop-forging. 

Tongs  for  Steam-hammer  Work. — The  tongs  used 
for  holding  work  under  the  steam-hammer  should 
be  very  carefully  fitted  and  the  jaws  so  shaped 
that  they  hold  the  stock  on  all  sides.  Ordinary 
flat-jawed  tongs  should  not  be  used,  as  the  work 
is  liable  to  be  jarred  or  slip  out  sideways. 

Fig.  175  shows  the  jaws  of  a  pair  of  tongs  fitted 


122 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


to    square   stock.     Tongs    for   other   shaped   stock 

should     have     the     jaws 
formed   in   a   correspond 
ing  way;   that  is,  the  in- 
side  of   the  jaws,  viewed 
from  the  end,  should  have 


FIG.  I75. 


the  same  shape  as  the  cross-section  of  the  stock  they 
are  intended  to  hold,  and  should  grip  the  stock 
firmly  on  at  least  three  sides. 

Flat-jawed  tongs  can  be  easily  shaped  as  above 
in  the  manner  shown  in  Fig.   176.     The  tongs  are 


FIG.  176. 

heated  and  held  as  shown,  by  placing  one  jaw, 
inside  up,  on  a  swage.  The  jaw  is  grooved  or 
bent  by  driving  down  a  top-fuller  on  it.  After 
shaping  the  other  jaw  in  the  same  way,  the  final 
fitting  is  done  by  inserting  a  short  piece  of  stock  of 
the  proper  size  in  the  jaws  and  closing  them  down 
tightly  over  this  by  hammering. 

When  fitting  tongs  to  round  stock,  the  finishing 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK. 


I23 


may  be  done  between  swages,  the  stock  being  kept 
between  the  jaws  while  working  them  into  shape. 

Tongs  for  heavy  work  should  have  the  jaws 
shaped  as  shown  in  Fig.  177.  When  in  use,  tongs 
of  this  kind  are  held  by 
slipping  a  link  over  the 
handles  to  force  them  to- 
gether. On  very  large  sizes, 
this  link  is  driven  on  with  a 
sledge. 

To  turn  the  work  easily, 


FIG.  177. 


the  link  is  sometimes  made  in  the  shape  shown  in 
Fig.  178,  with  a  handle  projecting  from  each  end. 


FIG.  178. 

Hammer-chisels. — The  hot-chisel  used  for  cutting 
work  under  the  hammer  is  shaped,  ordinarily,  like 
Fig.  179.  This  is  sometimes  made  of  solid  tool- 


STEEL 


FIG.  179. 


FIG.  180. 


steel,  and  sometimes  the  blade  is  made  of  tool-steel 
and  has  a  wrought-iron  handle  welded  on.  Fig. 
1 80  shows  the  method  of  welding  on  the  wrought- 
iron  handle. 


124 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


The  handle  of  the  chisel,  close  up  to  the  blade,  is 
hammered  out  comparatively  thin.  -This  is  to 
allow  the  blade  to  spring  slightly  without  snapping 
off  the  handle.  The  hammer  will  always  knock 
the  blade  into  a  certain  position,  and  as  the  chisel 
is  not  always  held  in  exactly  the  right  way,  this 
thin  part  of  the  handle  permits  a  little  ' '  give  ' ' 
without  doing  any  harm. 

The  force  of  the  blow  is  so  great  when  cutting, 
that  the  edge  of  the  chisel  must  be  left  rather 
blunt.  The  edge  should  be  square  across,  and  not 
rounding.  The  proper  shape  is  shown  at  A,  Fig. 


FIG.  181. 


181.  Sometimes  for  special  work  the  edge  may 
be  slightly  beveled,  as  at  B  or  C,  but  should  never 
be  shaped  like  D. 

Sometimes  a  bar  is  cut  or  nicked  with  a  cold- 
chisel  under  the  hammer. 
The  chisel  used  is  shaped 
like  Fig.  182,  being  very 
flat  and  stumpy  to  resist  the 
crushing  effect  of  heavy  blows.  The  three  faces 
of  the  chisel  are  of  almost  equal  width. 

Cutting  Hot  Stock. — Hot  cutting  is  done  under  the 


FIG.  182. 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK. 


steam-hammer  in  much  the  same  way  as  done  on 
the  anvil. 

If  the  chisel  be  held  perfectly  upright,  as  shown 
at  A,  Fig.  183,  the  cut  end  of  the  bar  will  be  left 


FIG.  183. 

bulging  out  in  the  middle.  When  the  end  is  wanted 
square  the  cut  should  be  started  with  the  chisel 
upright,  but  once  started,  the  chisel  should  be  very 
slightly  tipped,  as  shown  at  B.  When  cutting 
work  this  way  the  cut  should  be  made  about  half 
way  through  from  all  sides.  When  cutting  off 
large  pieces  of  square  stock  the  chisel  should  be 
driven  nearly  through  the  bar,  leaving  only  a  thin 
strip  of  metal,  \"  or  \"  thick,  joining  the  twc 
pieces,  A,  Fig.  184.  The  bar  is  then  turned  over 


FIG.  184. 

on  the  anvil  and  a  thin  bar  of  steel  laid  directly  on 
top  of  this  thin  strip,  as  shown  at  B,  Fig.  184. 
One  hard  blow  of  the  hammer  sends  the  thin  bar 
of  steel  between  the  two  pieces  and  completely 
cuts  out  the  thin  connecting  strip  of  metal.  This 


126  FORCE  PRACTICE. 

leaves  the  ends  of  both  pieces  smooth,  while  if  the 

chisel  is  used  for  cutting 
on  both  sides,  the  end  of 
one  piece  will  be  smooth 

and  the  other  will  have  a 
FIG.  185.  .    . 

fin  left  on  it. 

For  cutting  up  into  corners  on  the  ends  of  slots 
bent  cutters  are  sometimes  used;  such  a  cutter  is 
shown  in  Fig.  185.  These  cutters  are  also  made 
curved,  and  special  shapes  made  for  special  work. 

General  Notes  on  Steam-hammer. — When  working 
under  the  hammer,  great  care  should  always  be 
taken  to  be  sure  that  everything  is  in  the  proper 
position  before  striking  a  blow.  The  work  must 
rest  flat  and  solid  on  the  anvil,  and  the  part  to  be 
worked  should  be  held  as  nearly  as  possible  below 
the  center  of  the  hammer-die ;  if  the  work  be  done 
under  one  edge  or  corner  of  the  hammer-die,  the 
result  is  a  "foul"  blow,  which  has  a  tendency  to 
tip  the  ram  and  strain  the  frame. 

When  tools  are  used,  they  should  always  be  held 
in  such  a  way  that  the  part  of  the  tool  touching 
the  work  is  directly  below  the  point  of  the  tool  on 
which  the  hammer  will  strike.  Thus,  supposing  a 
piece  were  being  cut  off  under  the  hammer,  the 
chisel  should  be  held  exactly  upright,  and  directly 
under  the  center  of  the  hammer,  as  shown  at  A, 
Fig.  1 86.  In  this  way  a  fair  cut  is  made.  If  the 
chisel  were  not  held  upright,  but  slantingly,  as 
shown  at  B,  the  result  of  the  blow  would  be  as 
shown  by  the  dotted  lines,  the  chisel  would  be 
turned  over  and  knocked  flat,  and,  in  some  cases, 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK. 


127 


might  be   even   thrown  very   forcibly   from  under 
the  hammer. 

When  a  piece  is  to  be  worked  out  to  any  great 
extent,  the  blows  should  be  heavy,  and  the  end  of 


v 


/r\  7 \ 


FIG.  186. 


the  stock  being  hammered  should  bulge  out  slightly, 
like  A,  Fig.  187,  showing  that  the  metal  is  being 


FIG.  187. 

worked  clear  through.  If  light  blows  are  used  the 
end  of  the  piece  will  forge  out  convex,  like  B,  show- 
ing that  the  metal  on  the  outside  of  the  bar  has 
been  worked  more  than  that  on  the  inside.  If  this 
sort  of  work  is  continued,  the  bar  will  split  and 
work  hollow  in  the  center,  like  C. 

Round  shafts  formed  between  flat  dies  are  very 
liable  to  be  split  in  this  way  when  not  carefully 
hand1ed. 

The  faces  of  the  hammer-  and  anvil-dies  are  gen- 
erally of  the  same  width,  but  not  always  the  same 


1 28  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

length.  Thus,  when  the  hammer  is  resting  on  the 
anvil,  the  front  and  back  sides  of  the  two  dies  are 
in  line  with  each  other,  while  either  one  or  both 
ends  of  the  anvil-die  project  beyond  the  ends  of 
the  hammer-die. 

This  is  not  always  the  case,  however,  as  in  many 
hammers  the  faces  of  the  two  dies  are  the  same 
shape  and  size. 

Having  one  die  face  longer  than  the  other  is  an 
advantage  sometimes  when  a  shoulder  is  to  be 
formed  on  one  side  of  the  work  only. 

When  a  shoulder  is  to  be  formed  on  both  sides  of 
a  piece  the  work  should  be  placed  under  the  ham- 
mer in  such  a  way  that  the  top  die  will  work  in  one 
shoulder,  while  the  bottom  die  is  forming  the  other ; 
in  other  words,  the  work  should  be  done  from  the 
side  of  the  hammer,  where  the  edges  of  the  dies  are 
even,  as  shown  in  Fig.  188.  If  the  shoulder  is  re- 
quired on  one  side  only,  as  in  forging  tongs,  the 


FIG.  188.  FIG.  189. 

work  should  be  so  placed  as  to  work  in  the  shoulder 
with  the  top  die,  while  the  bottom  die  keeps  the 
under  side  of  the  work  straight,  as  in  Fig.  189,  A, 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK.  129 

The  same  object,  a  shoulder  on  one  side  only, 
may  be  accomplished  by  using  a  block,  as  shown 
at  B,  Fig.  189.  The  block  may  be  used  as  shown, 
or  the  positions  of  work  and  block  may  be  reversed 
and  the  work  laid  with  flat  side  on  the  anvil  and 
block  placed  on  top. 

This  method  of  forming  shoulders  will  be  taken 
up  more  in  detail  in  treating  individual  forgings. 

Tools:  Swages. — In  general,  the  tools  used  in 
steam-hammer  work,  except  in  special  cases,  are 
very  simple. 

Swages  for  finishing  work  up  to  about  3"  or  4" 
in  diameter  are  commonly  made  as  shown  in  Fig. 
190.  The  two  parts  of  the  swage  are  held  apart 


FIG.  190. 

by  the  long  spring  handle.  This  spring  handle 
may  be  made  as  shown  at  B,  by  forming  it  of  a  sep- 
arate piece  of  stock  and  fastening  it  to  the  swage, 
by  making  a  thin  slot  in  the  side  of  the  block  with 
a  hot-chisel  or  punch,  forcing  the  handle  into  this 
and  closing  the  metal  around  it  with  a  few  light 
blows  around  the  hole  with  the  edge  of  a  fuller. 

Another  method  of  forming  the  handle  (C)  is  to 
draw  out  the  same  piece  from  which  the  blocks  are 


FORGE- PRACTICE. 


made,  hammering  down  the  center  of  the  stock  to 
form  the  handle,  and  leaving  the  ends  full  size  to 
make  the  swages. 

Swages  for  large  work  are  made  sometimes  as 
shown  in  Fig.   191.     The  one  shown  at  B  is  made 


FIG.  191. 

for  an  anvil-die  having  a  square  hole,  similar  to 
the  hardie-hole  in  an  ordinary  anvil,  near  one  end. 
The  horn  on  the  swage,  at  x,  slips  into  this  hole, 
while  the  other  two  projections  fit,  one  on  either 
side,  over  the  sides  of  the  anvil.  These  horns,  or 
fingers,  prevent  the  swage  from  slipping  around 
when  in  use. 


END-VIEW 


FIG.  192. 

Tapering  and  Fullering  Tool. — As  the  faces  of  the 
anvil-  and  hammer-dies  are  flat  and  parallel,  it 
is  not  possible  to  finish  smoothly  between  the  bare 
dies,  any  work  having  tapering  sides. 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK.  131 

By  using  a  tool  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig. 
192  tapering  work  may  be  smoothly  finished. 

Taper  Work. — The  use  of  the  tool  illustrated 
above  is  shown  in  Fig.  193.  For  roughing  out 
taper  work,  the  tool  is  used  with  the  curved  side 


FINISHING 
FIG.  193. 

down,  the  straight  side  being  flat  with  the  hammer- 
die.  When  finishing  the  taper,  the  tool  is  reversed, 
the  flat  side  being  held  at  the  desired  angle  and 
the  hammer  striking  the  curved  side.  This  curved 
side  enables  the  tool  to  do  good  work  through 
quite  a  wide  range  of  angles.  If  too  great  an  angle 
is  attempted,  the  tool  will  be  forced  from  under 
the  hammer  by  the  wedging  action. 

Fullers. — Fullers  such  as  used  for  ordinary  hand 
forgings  are  very  seldom  employed  in  steam-ham- 
mer work.  To  take  their 
place  simple  round  bars 
are  used.  When  much 
used,  the  bars  should  be 
of  tool-steel. 

One  use  of  round  bars, 

j      t.  •      -1  FlG" 

as  mentioned  above,  is  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.   194.     Here  the  work,  as  shown, 


132  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

has  a  semicircular  groove  extending  around  it, 
forming  a  "neck."  The  groove  is  formed  by  plac- 
ing a  short  piece  of  round  steel  of  the  proper  size 
on  the  anvil-die;  on  this  is  placed  the  work,  with 
the  spot  where  the  neck  is  to  be  formed  directly 
on  top  of  the  bar.  Exactly  above  the  bar,  and 
parallel  to  it  on  top  of  the  work,  is  held  another  bar 
of  the  same  diameter.  By  striking  with  the  hammer, 
the  bars  are  driven  into  the  work,  forming  the 
groove.  The  work  should  be  turned  frequently 
to  insure  a  uniform  depth  of  groove  on  all  sides; 
for,  if  held  in  one  position,  one  bar  will  work  in 
deeper  than  the  other. 

Adjusting  Work  Under  the  Hammer. — When  work 
is  first  laid  on  the  anvil  the  hammer  should 
always  be  lowered  lightly  down  on  it  in  order  to 
properly  "locate"  it.  This  brings  the  work  flat 
and  true  with  the  die-faces;  and  if  held  in  this 
position  (and  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  it  is), 
there  will  be  little  chance  of  the  jumping,  jarring, 
and  slipping,  caused  by  holding  the  forging  in  the 
wrong  position.  This  is  particularly  true  when 
using  tools,  as  great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  hammer  strikes  them  fairly.  If  the  first  blow 
is  a  heavy  one,  and  the  work  is  not  placed  exactly 
right,  there  is  danger  of  the  piece  flying  from  under 
the  hammer  and  causing  a  serious  accident. 

As  an  illustration  of  the  above,  suppose  that  a 
piece  be  carelessly  placed  on  the  anvil,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  195,  the  piece  resting  on  the  edge  of  the  anvil 
only,  not  flat  on  the  face,  as  it  should. 

When  the  hammer  strikes  quickly  and  hard  two 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK. 


133 


FIG.  195. 


things-  may  happen :  either  the  bar  will  be  bent  (as 
it  will  if  very  hot  and  soft)  or 
it  will  be  knocked  into  the  posi- 
tion shown  by  the  dotted  lines. 
If  the  hammer  be  lowered  lightly 
at  first,  the  bar  will  be  pushed 
down  flat,  and  assumes  the  dotted 
position  easily,  where  it  may  be 
held  for  the  heavy  blows. 

Squaring  Up  Work.  —  It  frequently  happens  in 
hammer  work,  as  well  as  in  hand  forging,  that  a 
piece  which  should  be  square  in  section  becomes 
lopsided  and  diamond-shaped. 

To  correct  this  fault  the  forging  should  be  held 
as  shown  in  Fig.  196,  with  the  long  diagonal  of 


t>on 


FIG.  196. 

the  diamond  shape  perpendicular  to  the  face  of  the 
anvil. 

A  few  blows  will  flatten  the  work  into  the  shape 
shown  at  B ;  the  work  should  then  be  rolled  slightly 
in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  and  the  hammering 
continued,  the  forging  taking  the  shape  of  C,  and, 
as  the  rolling  and  hammering  are  continued,  finally, 
the  square  section  D. 

Making  Small  Tongs. — As  an  example  of  manipu- 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


lation  under  the  hammer,  the  making  of  a.  pair  of 
ordinary  flat-jawed  tongs  is  a  good  illustration. 

Fig.  197  shows  the  different  steps  from  the  straight 
stock  to  the  finished  piece. 


FIG.  197. 

The  stock  is  heated  to  a  high  heat  and  bent  as 
shown  in  Figs.  198  and  199.     A  and  B  (Fig.  198) 


\         / 


FIG.  198. 


FIG.  199. 


are  two  pieces  of  flat  iron  of  the  same  thickness. 
The  stock  is  placed  like  Fig.  198,  the  hammer 
brought  down  lightly,  to  make  sure  that  every- 
thing is  in  the  proper  position,  and  then  one  hard 
blow  bends  the  stock  into  shape  (Fig.  199). 

Fig.  200  shows  the  method  of  starting  the  eye 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK.  135 

and  working  in  the  shoulder.  The  bent  piece  is 
laid  flat  on  the  anvil  and  a  piece  of  flat  steel  laid  on 
top,  in  such  a  position  that  one  side  of  the  steel 
will  cut  into  the  work  and  form  the  shoulder  for 


FIG.  200.  FIG.  201. 

the  jaw  of  the  tongs.  The  steel  is  pounded  into 
the  work  until  the  metal  is  forged  thin  enough  to 
form  the  eye.  This  leaves  the  work  in  the  shape 
shown  in  Fig.  201.  The  part  A,  Fig.  201,  is  after- 
ward drawn  out  to  form  the  handle,  the  jaw  and 
eye  are  formed  up,  and,  lastly,  the  eye  is  punched. 
The  forming  of  the  jaw  and  the  punching  of  the 
rivet-hole  should  be  done  with  the  hand-hammer, 
and  not  under  the  steam-hammer. 

The  handle  is,  of  course,  drawn  out  under  the 
steam-hammer,  but  needs  no  particular  descrip- 
tion. For  careful  finishing,  the  taper  tool  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  192,  may  be  used,  or  a  sledge  and 
swages. 

As  a  general  thing,  steam-hammer  work  does  not 
differ  very  much  from  forging  done  on  the  anvil. 
The  method  of  operation,  in  either  case,  is  almost 
the  same;  but,  when  working  under  the  hammer, 
the4  work  is  more  quickly  done  and  should  be  han- 
dled more  rapidly. 

Crank-shafts.— The    crank-shaft,  shown    in  Figs. 


136 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


128  and  129,  is  a  quite  common  example  of  steam- 
hammer  work. 

The  different  operations  are  about  the  same  as 
described  for  making  it  on  the  anvil. 

A  specially  shaped  tool  is  used  to  make  the  cuts 
each  side  of  the  crank  cheek.  This  tool  and  its 
use  are  shown  in  Fig.  202.  When  the  cuts  are 


J-fl 


FIG.  202. 


FIG.  203. 


very  deep,  they  should  first  be  made  with  a  hot- 
chisel  and  then  spread  with  the  spreading  tool. 
If  the  shoulder  is  not  very  high,  both  operations, 
of  cutting  and  spreading,  may  be  done  at  once  with 
the  spreading  tool. 

After  marking  and  opening  out  the  cuts,  the 
same  precautions,  to  avoid  cold-shuts,  must  be 
taken  as  are  used  when  doing  the  same  sort  of 
work  on  the  anvil.  The  work  should  be  held  and 
handled  much  the  same  as  illustrated  in  Fig.  131, 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK.  137 

only  in  this  case  the  sledge  and  anvil  are  replaced 
by  the  top  and  bottom  dies  of  the  steam-hammer. 

A  block  of  steel  may  be  used  for  squaring  up  into 
the  shoulder,  as  shown  in  Fig.  203.  If  a  shoulder 
is  to  be  formed  on  both  sides,  one  block  may  be 
placed  below  and  another  above  the  work,  some- 
what as  shown  before  in  Fig.  194;  the  round  bars 
in  the  illustration  being  replaced  with  square  ones. 

Knuckles. — A  knuckle  such  as  shown  in  Fig. 
139  would  be  made  by  identically  the  same 
process  as  described  for  making  it  on  the  anvil. 
A  few  suggestions  might  be  made,  however. 

After  the  end  of  the  bar  has  been  split  and  bent 
apart,  ready  for  shaping,  the  work  should  be  han- 
dled, under  the  hammer,  as  shown  in  Fig.  204.  It 


FIG.  204. 

should  first  be  placed  as  shown  by  the  solid  lines, 
and  as  the  hammering  proceeds,  should  be  gradually 
worked  over  into  the  position  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines.  The  other  side  is  worked  in  the  same  way. 


FORGE-PRACTlCK. 


After  drawing  out  and  shaping  the  ends  the 
knuckle  is  finished  by  bending  the  ends  together 
over  a  block,  in  the  same  way  as  shown  in  Fig.  144, 
the  work  being  done  under  the  hammer. 

Connecting-rod.     Drawing  Out  between  Shoulders.— 
The   forging   illustrated   in   Fig.   126,  while  hardly 
the     exact     proportions     of    common    connecting- 
rods,  is  near  enough  the  proper  shape  to  be  a  good 
example  of  that  kind  of  forging. 

The  forging,  after  the  proper  stock  calculation 
has  been  made,  is  started  by  making  the  cuts  near 
the  two  ends,  as  shown  in  Fig.  127.  The  distance, 
A,  must  be  so  calculated,  as  explained  before,  that 


ZL 


FIG.  205. 


FIG.  206. 


the  stock  represented  by  that  dimension,  when 
drawn  out,  will  form  the  shape,  2"  in  diameter  and 
24"  long,  connecting  the  two  wide  ends. 

The  cuts  are  made  with  the  spreading  tool  used 
in  connection  with  a  short  block  shaped  the  same 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK.  139 

as  the  tool,  or  a  second  tool,  the  tools  being  placed 
one  above  and  one  below  the  work,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  205. 

After  making  the  cuts  the  stock  between  them  is 
drawn  down  to  the  proper  size  and  finished. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  the  distance  A  is  so 
short  that  the  cuts  are  closer  together  than  the 
width  of  the  die-faces,  thus  making  it  impossible 
to  draw  out  the  work  by  using  the  flat  dies.  This 
difficulty  may  be  overcome  by  using  two  narrow 
blocks  as  shown  in  Fig.  206. 

Weldless  Rings — Special  Shapes. — It  is  often  nec- 
essary to  make  rings  and  similar  shapes  without  a 
weld.  The  simple  process  is  illustrated  in  Figs. 
155-7.  Rings  may  be  made  in  this  way  under  the 
steam-hammer  much  more  rapidly  than  is  possible 
by  bending  and  welding.  To  illustrate  the  rapid- 
ity with  which  weldless  rings  can  be  made,  the 
author  has  seen  the  stock  cut  from  the  bar,  the 
ring  forged  and  trued  up  in  one  heat.  The  ring  in 
question  was  about  10"  outside  diameter,  the  section 
of  stock  in  rim  being  about 
i"  square.  The  stock  used 
was  about  3"  square,  soft  steel. 

A  forging  for  a  die  to  be 
made  of  tool-steel  is  shown  in 
Fig.  207.  FlG-  2°7- 

This  is  made  in  the  same  general  way  as  weld- 
less  rings.  The  stock  is  cut,  shaped  into  a  disc, 
punched,  and  worked  over  a  mandril  into  the  shape 
shown  at  A,  Fig.  208. 

The  lug,  projecting  toward  the  center  from  the 


140 


FORGE-PRACTlrE. 


flat  edge  of  the  die,  is  shaped  on  a  special  mandril, 
the  work  being  done  as  shown  at  B,  the  thick  side 


FIG.  208. 

of  the  ring  being  driven  into  the  groove  in  the  man- 
dril and  shaped  up  as  shown  at  C,  where  the  end 
view  of  the  mandril  and  ring  is  shown. 

If  the  flat  edge  of  the  die  is  very  long,  it  may  be 
straightened  out  by  using  a  flat  mandril  and  work- 


FIG.  209. 

ing  each  side  of  the  projecting  lug  after  the  lug  has 
been  formed. 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK.  141 

The  forging  leaves  the  hammer  in  the  shape 
shown  in  Fig.  209  at  A.  The  finishing  of  the  sharp 
corner  is  done  on  the  anvil  with  hand  tools,  in 
much  the  same  way  that  any  corner  is  squared  up, 
Figs.  B  and  C  giving  a  general  idea  of  working  up 
the  corner  by  using  a  flatter. 

Punches. — The  punches  used  for  this  kind  of 
work,  and  in  fact  for  all  punching  under  the  steam- 
hammer,  should  be  short  and  thick. 

A  punch  made  as  shown  in  Fig.  210  is  very  satis- 
factory for  general  work.  This  punch  is  simply 
a  short  tapering  pin  with 
a  shallow  groove  formed 
around  it  about  one  third 
of  the  length  from  the  big 

end.      A     bar     of     small 

FIG.  210. 
round    iron    (f"    is    about 

right  for  small  punches)  is  heated,  wrapped  around 
the  punch  in  the  groove  and  twisted  tight,  as  shown. 

The  punching  is  done  in  exactly  the  same  way 
as  with  hand  tools ;  that  is,  the  punch  is  driven  to 
a  depth  of  about  one  half  or  two  thirds  the  thick- 
ness of  the  piece,  with  the  work  lying  flat  on  the 
anvil;  the  piece  is  then  turned  over,  the  punch 
started  with  the  work  still  flat  on  the  anvil,  and 
the  hole  completed  by  placing  a  disc,  or  some  other 
object  with  a  hole  in  it,  on  the  anvil;  on  this  the 
work  is  placed  with  the  hole  in  the  disc  directly 
under  where  the  punch  will  come  through.  The 
punch  is  then  driven  through  and  the  hole  completed. 

The  end  of  the  punch  must  not  be  allowed  to 
become  red-hot.  If  the  punch  is  left  in  contact 


142  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

with  the  work  too  long,  it  will  become  heated,  and, 
after  a  few  blows,  the  end  will  spread  out  in  a  mush- 
room shape  and  stick  in  the  hole. 

To  prevent  the  above,  the  punch  should  be  lifted 
out  of  the  hole  and  cooled  between  every  few  blows. 

Sometimes,  when  a  hole  can  be  accurately  lo- 
cated, an  arrangement  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  211 
is  used.  The  punch  in  this  case  is  only  slightly 
longer  than  the  thickness  of  the  piece  to  be  pierced, 
and  is  used  with  the  big  end  down  as  shown. 


FIG.  211.  FIG.  212. 

The  punch  is  driven,  together  with  the  piece  of 
metal  which  is  cut  out,  through  into  the  hole  in  the 
die,  which  is  just  enough  larger  to  give  clearance  to 
the  punch. 

A  convenient  arrangement  for  locating  the  punch 
centrally  with  the  hole  in  the  die  is  shown  in  Fig. 
212. 

The  die  should  be  somewhat  larger  in  diameter 
than  the  work  to  be  punched.  The  wrork  is  first 
placed  in  the  proper  position  on  the  die  and  the 
punch  placed  on  top.  The  punch  is  located  by 
using  a  spider-shaped  arrangement  made  from  thin 
iron.  This  spider  has  a  central  ring  with  a  hole  in 
the  center  large  enough  to  slip  easily  over  the 
punch.  Radiating  from  the  ring  are  four  arms, 
three  of  which  have  their  ends  bent  down  to  fit 


STEAM-HAMMER   WORK.  143 

around  the  outside  of  the  die,  the  fourth  being 
longer  and  used  for  a  handle.  The  ends  of  the  bent 
arms  are  so  shaped  that  where  they  touch  the  out- 
side of  the  die  the  central  hole  is  exactly  over  the 
hole  in  the  die. 

After  locating  the  punch  with  the  spider,  and 
while  the  spider  is  still  in  place,  a  light  blow  of  the 
hammer  starts  the  punch,  after  which  the  spider  is 
lifted  off  and  the  punch  driven  through. 

Forming  Bosses  on  Flanges,  etc. — A  boss,  on  a 
flange  or  other  flat  piece,  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  213, 
may  be  very  easily  formed  by  using  a  few  simple 


FIG.  213.  FIG.  214.  • 

tools.  The  special  tools  are  shown  in  Fig.  214, 
and  are :  a  round  cutter  used  for  starting  the  boss, 
shown  at  A,  which  also  shows  a  section  of  the  tool, 
and  a  flat  disc,  shown  at  B,  used  for  flattening 
and  finishing  the  metal  around  the  boss. 

The  stock  is  first  forged  into  shape  slightly 
thicker  than  the  boss  is  to  be  finished,  as  it  flattens 
down  somewhat  in  the  forging. 

The  boss  is  started  by  making  a  cut  with  the 
circular  cutter,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  215,  where  is 
also  shown  a  section  of  the  forging  after  the  cut 
has  been  made. 


144 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


The  metal  outside  of  the  cut  is  then  flattened 
out,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines.     This  flattening 


^ .> 


FIG.  215. 

and  drawing -'out  may  be  done  easily  by  using  a 
bar  of  round  steel,  as  shown  at  C.  The  bar  is 
placed  in  such  a  position  as  to  fall  just  outside  of 
the  boss.  After  striking  a  blow  with  the  hammer, 
the  bar  is  moved  farther  toward  the  edge  of  the 
work  and  the  piece  is  turned  slightly.  In  this  way 
the  stock  is  roughly  thinned  out,  leaving  the  boss 
standing.  To  finish  the  work,  the  forging  is  turned 
bottom  side  up  over  the  disc,  with  the  boss  extend- 
ing down  into  the  hole  in  the  disc,  as  shown  at  B. 
With  a  few  blows,  the  disc  is  forced  up  around  the 
boss  and  finishes  the  metal  off  smoothly. 

The  disc  need  not  necessarily  be  large  enough  to 
extend  to  the  edge  of  the  work;  for  if  a  disc  as 
described  above  is  used  to  finish  around  the  boss, 
the  edge  of  the  work  may  be  drawn  down  n  the 
usual  way  under  the  hammer. 

A  disc  is  not  absolutely  necessary  in  any  case; 
but  the  work  may  be  more  carefully  and  quickly 
finished  in  this  way. 


STEAM-HAMMER    WORK. 


Round  Tapering  Work. — A  round  tapering  shape, 
such   as    shown   at    A,    Fig.    216,    should   be   first 


FIG.  216. 

roughly  forged  into  shape.  It  may  be  started  by 
working  in  the  shoulder  next  the  head  with  round 
bars,  in  the  way  illustrated  before  in  Fig.  194. 

The  roughing  out  may  be  done  with  square  or 
flat  pieces,  using  them  in  much  the  same  way;  or 
one  piece  only  may  be  used  and  the  work  allowed 
to  lie  flat  on  the  anvil,  with  the  head  projecting 
over  the  edge. 

After  roughing  out,  the  work  may  be  finished 
with  swages.  As  ordinarily  used,  the  swages 
would  leave  the  forging  straight,  with  the  oppo- 
site sides  parallel.  To  form  a  taper,  a  thin  strip 
should  be  held  on  top  of  the  upper  swage  close  to 
and  parallel  with  one  of  the  edges,  as  shown  at 
B,  Fig.  216.  The  strip  causes  the  swage  to  tip 
and  slant,  thus  forming  the  work  tapering. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


DUPLICATE    WORK. 

WHEN  several  pieces  are  to  be  made  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible,  the  work  is  generally  more  easily 
done  by  using  "dies"  or  "jigs." 

Generally  speaking,  "dies"  are  blocks  of  metal 
having  faces  shaped  for  bending  or  forming  work. 
The  term  "jig"  may  be  applied  to  almost  any 
contrivance  used  for  helping  to  bend,  shape,  or 
form  work.  As  ordinarily  used,  a  jig,  generally, 
is  simply  a  combination  of  some  sort  of  form  or 

flat  plate  and  one  or  more 
clamps  and  levers  for  bend- 
ing. 

Dies,  or  jigs,  for  simple 
bending  may  be  easily  and 
cheaply  made  of  ordinary 
cast .  iron ;  and,  for  most 
purposes,  left  rough,  or  un- 
finished. 

Simple  Bending.  -  The 
bend  shown  in  Fig.  217  is 
a  fair  example  of  simple 
work.  The  dies  for  making 
this  bend  are  two  blocks 


"!  B 


FIG.  217. 


of  cast   iron   made  as   shown,  one   simply  a    rect- 

146 


DUPLICATE    WORK.  147 

angular  block  the  size  of  the  inside  of  the  bend  to 
be  made,  the  other  a  block  having  on  one  side  a 
groove  the  same  shape  as  the  outside  of  the  piece 
to  be  bent.  The  blocks  should  be  slightly  wider 
than  the  stock  to  be  bent. 

The  stock  is  cut  to  the  proper  length,  heated, 
placed  on  the  hollow  block,  and  the  small  block 
placed  on  top,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  at  B, 
Fig.  217.  The  bend  is  made  by  driving  down  the 
small  block  with  a  blow  of  the  hammer. 

Work  of  this  kind  may  be  easily  done  under  a 
steam-hammer;  and  the  dies  described  here  are 
intended  for  use  in  this  way,  most  of  them  having 
been  designed  for,  and  used  under,  a  2oo-lb.  ham- 
mer. 

Dies  of  this  kind  may  be  fitted  to  the  jaws  of  an 
ordinary  vise,  the  bending  being  done  by  tighten- 
ing up  the  screw. 

A  die  such  as  described  above  should  have  a 
little  "clearance";  that  is,  the  opening  in  the  hol- 
low die  should  be  slightly  larger  at  the  top  than  at 
the  bottom.  The  small,  or  top,  die  should  be  made 
accordingly,  slightly  smaller  at  the  bottom. 

To  make  the  dies  easier  to  handle,  a  hole  may  be 
drilled  and  tapped  in  each  block  and  pieces  of 
round  bars  threaded  and  screwed  into  the  holes  to 
form  handles.  This  is  more  fully  described  in  the 
following  example: 

Fig.  218,  A,  is  a  hook  bent  from  stock  f"  X  i",  to 
fit  around  the  flange  of  an  I  beam.  The  hooks 
were  about  6"  long  when  finished.  To  bend  these, 
two  cast-iron  blocks,  or  dies,  were  used,  shown  at 


148 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


B.     The  dies  were  rough  castings.     Patterns  were 
made  by  laying  out  the  hook  on  a  piece  of  2"  white 


FIG.  218. 


FIG.  219. 


pine  and  then  sawing  to  shape  with  a  band-saw. 
The  block  was  "laid  off"  as  shown  in  Fig.  219,  A, 
the  sawing  being  done  on  the  dotted  lines.  This 
left  the  blocks  of  such  a  shape  that  the  space  be- 
tween them,  when  they  were  brought  together 
with  the  upper  and  lower  edges  parallel,  was  just 
equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  stock  to  be  bent. 

Patterns  of  this  kind  should  be  given  plenty  of 
"draft,"  which  may  be  quickly  and  easily  done  by 
planing  the  sides,  after  the  blocks  are  sawed  out, 
to  taper  slightly  as  shown  in  Fig.  219,  B,  where  the 
dotted  lines  show  the  square  sides  before  being 
planed  of!  for  draft  as  indicated  by  the  solid  lines. 

When  the  castings  were  made,  a  13/32"  hole  was 
drilled  in  the  right-hand  end  of  each  block  and 
tapped  with  \"  tap.  A  piece  of  \"  round  iron 
about  30"  long  was  threaded  with  a  die  for  about 
i\"  on  each  end  and  bent  up  to  form  the  handle. 


DUPLICATE   WORK.  149 

A  nut  was  run  on  each  end  and  the  blocks  screwed 
on  and  locked  by  screwing  the  nut  up  against  them, 
making  the  finished  dies  as  shown  in  Fig.  218.  The 
handle  formed  a  spring,  holding  the  dies  far  enough 
apart  to  allow  the  iron  to  be  placed  between 
them. 

As  mentioned  before,  dies  of  this  kind  can  be 
easily  made  to  cover  a  variety  of  work,  and  are 
very  inexpensive.  The  dies  in  question,  for  in- 
stance, required  about  half  an  hour's  pattern  work, 
and  about  as  much  time  more  to  fit  the  handles. 
Calculating  shop  time  at  50  cents  per  hour  and 
castings  at  5  cents  per  pound,  and  allowing  for  the 
handle,  the  entire  cost  of  these  dies  was  less  than 
$1.25. 

The  same  handle  can  be  used  for  any  number  of 
dies  of  about  the  same  size,  and  if  any  one  of  these 
dies  should  break,  it  can  be  replaced  at  a  very 
trifling  cost. 

Cast-iron  dies  of  this  character  will  bend  several 
hundred  pieces  and  show  no  signs  of  giving  out, 
although  they  may  snap  at  the  first  piece  if  made 
of  hard  iron.  On  an  important  job  it  is  generally 
wise  to  cast  an  extra  set  to  have  in  case  the  first 
prove  defective. 

Almost  any  simple  shape  may  be  bent  in  this 
way,  and  the  dies  may  be  used  on  any  ordinary 
steam-hammer  with  flat  forging  faces ;  and  not  only 
that,  but,  not  having  to  be  fastened  down  in  any 
way,  they  may  be  placed  under  the  hammer,  or 
removed,  without  interfering  with  other  work. 

Loop  with  Bent-in  Ends. — For    larger   work,  it  is 


150  FORGE-PRACTICK. 

often  better  to  have  a  die  to  replace  the  lower  die 
of  the  hammer,  as  in  the  case  mentioned  below. 

A  number  of  forgings  were  wanted  like  .4,  Fig. 
220.      The  stock  was  cut  to  the  proper  length  and 


FIG.  220. 

the  ends  bent  at  right  angles.  To  make  all  the 
pieces  alike,  one  end  of  each  piece  was  first  bent, 
as  shown  at  B,  in  a  vise.  The  other  ends  of  the 
pieces  were  then  all  bent  the  same  way,  by  hooking 
the  bent  end  over  a  bar  cut  to  the  proper  length 
and  bending  down  the  straight  end  over  the  other 
end  of  the  bar,  as  shown  at  C.  To  make  the  final 
bend,  a  cast-iron  form  was  used  similar  to  D.  This 
casting  was  about  i\"  thick,  and  the  dovetail- 
shaped  base  fitted  the  slot  in  the  anvil  base  of  the 
hammer.  When  the  form  was  used,  the  anvil-die 
was  removed  and  the  form  put  in  its  place. 

The  strips  to  be  bent  were  laid  on  top  of  this  form 
and  a  heavy  piece  of  flat  stock,  i"X2",  bent  into 


DUPLICATE    WORK. 


a  U  shape  to  fit  the  outside  of  the  forging,  placed 
on  top.  A  light  blow  of  the  hammer  would  force 
the  U-shaped  piece  down,  bending  the  stock  into 
the  proper  shape.  Fig.  221  shows  the  operation, 
the  dotted  lines  indicat-  \_ 

ing  the  position  of  the 
pieces  before  bringing 
down  the  hammer. 

The  most  satisfactory 
results  were  obtained 
by  bringing  the  ham- 
mer down  lightly  on 
the  work,  then,  by  turn- 
ing on  a  full  head  of 
steam,  the  ram  was 
forced  down  compara- 
tively slowly,  bending 
the  stock  gradually  and 
easily.  This  was  much 
more  satisfactory  than  a  quick,  sharp  blow. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  have  the  U-shaped  piece  of 
exactly  the  same  shape  as  the  forging.  It  is  suffi- 
cient if  the  lower  ends  of  the  U  are  the  proper  dis- 
tance apart.  As  the  strip  is  bent  over  the  form,  it 
naturally  follows  the  outline;  and  it  is  only  neces- 
sary to  force  it  against  the  form  at  the  lower  points 
of  the  sides. 

The  last  bend  might  have  been  made  by  using  a 
second  die  fastened  to  the  ram  of  the  hammer  in 
place  of  the  U-shaped  loop. 

Two  dies  are  necessary  for  much  work ;  but  these 
are  more  expensive  to  make.  The  upper  die  can 


FIG. 


152 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


be  easily  made  to  fit  in  the  dovetail  on  the  ram  and 
be  held  in  place  with  a  key. 

Right-angle  Bending. — Very  convenient  tools  for 
bending  right  angles,  in  stock  V'  or  less  in  thick- 
ness, are  shown  in  Fig.  222.  The  lower  one  is  made 

to  fit  easily  over  the  anvil 
of  the  steam-hammer,  the 
projecting  lips  on  either 
side  preventing  the  die 
from  sliding  forward  or 
back.  The  upper  one  has 
a  handle  screwed  in,  as 
described  before.  Both 
of  these  bending  tools  are 
made  of  cast  iron,  the 
patterns  being  simply 
sawed  from  a  2"  plank. 

Cast-iron  dies  of  this 
kind  should  be  made  of  a  tough,  gray  iron,  rather 
than  the  harder  white  iron,  as  they  are  less  liable  to 
break  if  cast  from  the  former. 

Many  of  the  regular  hammer  dies,  that  is,  the  dies 
with  flat  faces  for  general  forging,  are  made  of  cast 
iron ;  but  the  iron  in  this  case  is  of  another  quality 
— chilled  iron — the  faces  being  chilled,  or  hardened, 
for  a  depth  of  an  inch  or  more. 

Circular  Bending — Coil  Springs. — The  dies  de- 
scribed before  have  been  for  simple  bends;  the 
blows,  or  bending  force,  coming  from  one  direction 
only.  In  the  following  example,  where  a  complete 
circle,  or  more  than  a  circle,  is  formed,  an  arrange- 
ment of  a  different  nature  is  required. 


FIG.  222. 


DUPLICATE    WORK. 


153 


The  spring  shown  in  Fig.  223  is  an  example  of 
this  kind.  In  this  particular  case  the  bending 
was  done  cold;  but  for  hot  bending  the  operation 
is  exactly  the  same. 


FIG.  223. 


FIG.  224. 


This  jig  (Fig.  224)  was  built  upon  a  base-plate,  A, 
about  |"  thick,  having  one  end  bent  down  at  right 
angles  for  clamping  in  an  ordinary  vise. 

The  post  E  was  simply  a  i"  stud  screwed  into 
the  plate.  B  was  a  piece  of  f'Xi"  stock  about 
2"  long,  fastened  down  with  two  rivets,  and  served 
as  a  stop  for  clamping  the  stock  against  while  bend- 
ing. C  was  a  lever  made  of  a  piece  of  £"Xi" 
stock  about  10"  long,  having  one  end  ground 
rounding  as  shown.  This  lever  turned  on  the 
screw  F,  threaded  into  the  base-plate.  D  was  the 
bending  lever,  having  a  hole  punched  and  forged 
in  the  end  large  enough  to  turn  easily  on  the  stud 
E.  On  the  under  side  of  this  lever  was  riveted  a 
short  piece  of  iron  having  one  end  bent  down  at 
right  angles.  This  piece  was  so  placed  that  the 
distance  between  stud  E  and  the  inside  face  of  bent 
end,  when  the  lever  was  in  position  for  bending,  was 


I  $4  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

about  Y6/'  greater  than  the  thickness  of  the  stock 
to  be  bent. 

When  in  operation,  the  stock  to  be  bent  was 
placed  in  the  position  shown  in  the  sketch,  the 
lever  C  pulled  over  to  lock  it  in  place,  and  the  bend- 
ing lever  D  dropped  over  it  in  the  position  shown. 
To  bend  the  stock,  the  lever  was  pulled  around  in 
the  direction  of  the  arrow  and  as  many  turns  taken 
as  were  wanted  for  the  spring,  or  whatever  was 
being  bent.  By  lifting  off  the  bending  lever  and 
loosening  the  clamping  lever  the  piece  could  be 
slipped  from  the  stud. 

With  jigs  of  any  kind  a  suitable  stop  should 
always  be  provided  to  place  the  end  of  the  stock 
against,  in  order  to  insure  placing  and  bending  all 
pieces  as  nearly  as  possible  alike. 

Drop-forgings.  —  Strictly  speaking,  drop-forgings 
are  forgings  made  between  dies  in  a  drop-press  or 
forge.  Each  die  has  a  cavity  in  its  face,  so  shaped 
that  when  the  dies  are  in  contact  the  hole  left  has 
the  form  of  the  desired  forging.  One  of  the  dies  is 
fastened  to  the  bed  of  the  drop-press,  directly  in 
line  with  and  under  the  other  die,  which  is  keyed 
to  the  under  side  of  the  drop,  a  heavy  weight  run- 
ning between  upright  guides.  The  forging  is  done 
by  raising  the  drop  and  allowing  it  to  fall  between 
the  guides  of  its  own  weight. 

There  are  generally  two  or  more  sets  of  cavities 
in  the  die-faces,  one  set  being  used  for  roughing 
out,  or  "breaking  down,"  the  stock  roughly  to 
shape ;  another  set  for  finishing. 

The  dies  mentioned  above  would  be  known  as 


DUPLICATE    WORK.  155 

the  "breaking-down"  and  "finishing"  dies,  re- 
spectively. Sometimes  several  intermediate  dies 
are  used. 

In  a  general  way,  the  term  drop-forging  may  be 
used  to  describe  almost  any  forging  formed  be- 
tween shaped  dies  whether  made  by  a  drop-press  or 
other  means. 

Taking  the  word  in  its  broadest  meaning,  the 
example  given  below  might  be  called  a  drop-forg- 
ing, the  work  being  done  between  shaped  dies. 

Eye-bolt  —  Drop-forging.  —  The  example  in  ques- 
tion is  the  eye-bolt  given  in  Fig.  225.  The  differ- 
ent steps  in  the  making,  and 
the  dies  used,  are  shown  in  Fig. 
226. 

Round  stock  is  used,  and  first 
shaped  like  A,  Fig.  226,  the 
forming  being  done  in  the  die 

B.     This  die,  as  well  as  the  other 

•      .ru  FlG-  22S- 

one,  is  made   in  the  same  way 

as  ordinary  steam-hammer  swages ;  that  is,  simply 
two  blocks  of  tool-steel  fastened  together  with  a 
spring  handle.  The  inside  faces  of  the  blocks  are 
formed  to  shape  the  piece  as  shown. 

The  stock  is  revolved  through  about  90  degrees 
between  each  two  blows  of  the  steam-hammer,  and 
the  hammering  continued  until  the  die-faces  just 
touch. 

For  the  second  step  the  ball  is  flattened  to  about 
the  thickness  of  the  finished,  eye  between  the  bare 
hammer-dies.  The  hole  is  then  punched,  under 
the  hammer,  with  .an  ordinary  punch. 


156 


FORGK-PRACTICr:. 


The  forging  is  finished  with  a  few  blows  in  the 
finishing  die  D,  which  is  shown  by  a  sectional  cut 
and  plan.  This  die  is  so  shaped  that,  when  the 
two  parts  are  together,  the  hole  left  is  exactly  the 


SECTION  AT  X-X 


FIG.  226. 

shape  of  the  finished  forging.  In  the  first  die,  how- 
ever, it  should  be  noticed  that  the  holes  do  not  con- 
form exactly  to  the  desired  shape  of  the  forging; 
here  the  holes,  instead  of  being  semicircular,  are 
rounded  off  considerably  at  the  edges.  This  is 
shown  more  clearly  in  Fig.  227,  A,  where  the  dotted 
lines  show  the  shape  of  the  forging,  the  solid  lines 
the  shape  of  the  die. 

The  object  of  the  above  is  this :  If  the  hole  is  a 
semicircle  in  section,  the  stock,  being  larger  than 
the  small  parts  of  the  hole,  after  a  blow,  is  left 


DUPLICATE    WORK. 


157 


FIG.  227. 


like  B,  the   metal  being   forced   out   between   the 

flat  faces  of  the  die  and 

forming     'fins.'       When 

the    bar    is    turned    and 

again    hit,  these  fins  are 

doubled   in  and  make   a 

bad  place  in  the  forging. 

When  the  hole  is  a 
modified  semicircle,  as  de- 
scribed above,  the  stock 
will  be  formed  like  C, 
and  may  be  turned  and 
worked  without  injury 
or  danger  of  cold-shuts. 

Forming  Dies  Hot.— Making  dies  for  work  of  the 
above  kind  is  generally  an  expensive  process,  par- 
ticularly if  the  work  be  done  in  the  machine-shop. 

Rough  dies  for  this  kind  of  work  may  be  cheaply 
made  in  the  forge-shop  by  forming  them  hot. 

The  blocks  for  the  dies  are  forged  and  prepared, 
and  a  blank,  or  'master,'  forging  the  same  shape 
and  size  as  the  forgings  the  dies  are  expected  to 
form  is  made  from  tool-steel  and  hardened. 

The  die  blanks  are  then  heated,  the  master 
placed  between  them,  and  the  dies  hammered  to- 
gether, the  master  being  turned  frequently  during 
the  hammering. 

This,  of  course,  leaves  a  cavity  the  shape  of  the 
master. 

When  two  or  more  sets  of  dies  are  necessary 
there,  of  course,  must  be  separate  masters  for  each 
set  of  dies.  Dies  made  in  this  way  will  have  the 


158  FORGE-PRACTICK. 

corners  of  the  cavities  rounded  off,  as  the  metal  is 
naturally  pulled  away  during  the  forming,  leaving 
the  corners  somewhat  relieved. 

Dies  such  as  described  above  may  be  used  to 
advantage  under  almost  any  steam-hammer. 

For  spring  hammers,  helve  hammers,  and  power 
hammers  generally  the  die  faces  may  be  formed 
the  same  as  above;  but  the  die-blocks  should  be 
fastened  to  the  hammer  and  anvil  of  the  power 
hammer  itself,  replacing  the  ordinary  dies. 

Cast-iron  Dies. — Much  drop-forging  is  done  with 
cast  iron  dies,  and  for  rough  work  that  is  not  too 
heavy  they  are  very  satisfactory,  and  the  first  cost 
is  very  small  as  compared  with  the  steel  dies  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

Drop-forging  can  be  done  in  this  way  with  the 
steam-hammer,  by  keying  the  dies  in  the  dovetails 
made  for  the  top  and  bottom  hammer-dies. 

Welding  in  particular  is  done  in  this  way,  as  the 
metal  to  be  worked  is  in  such  a  soft  condition  that 
there  is  little  chance  of  smashing  the  die. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL. 

Classification. — For  intelligent  working  in  iron 
and  steel  some  understanding  of  their  chemical 
nature  and  method  of  manufacture  is  necessary. 

For  convenience'  sake,  the  irons  and  steels  ordi- 
narily used  in  the  forge-shop  may  be  divided  into 
three  general  classes,  viz. : 

1.  Wrought  iron. 

2.  Machine-steel,  or  low-carbon  steel. 

3.  Tool-steel. 

Cast  iron  should  also  be  considered  as  being  the 
base  product  from  which  the  above  are  derived. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  above  metals  may  be  con- 
sidered as  mixtures,  or,  better,  compounds  of  iron 
and  carbon. 

There  is  always  present  a  small  percentage  of 
other  elements,  such  as  manganese,  silicon,  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  etc.,  but  for  the  present  these  need  not 
be  considered. 

The  percentage  of  carbon  commonly  contained 
in  the  several  materials  is  about  as  follows : 

Cast  iron 2  . 50  to  4 .  50  per  cent. 

Wrought  iron 02"      .50"      " 

Machine-steel 02  "      .  60  ' '      " 

Tool-steel 70  "  1.50  "      " 


l6o  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Cast  Iron.— The  crude  material,  from  which  all 
iron  and  steel  are  manufactured,  is  iron  ore;  which 
is,  in  its  commercial  forms,  iron  oxide.  Some  of 
the  common  ores  have  much  the  same  appearance 
and  color  as  iron  rust. 

To  obtain  cast  iron,  the  ore  is  mixed  with  lime- 
stone and  melted  in  a  blast-furnace.  The  blast- 
furnace is  a  shell  of  iron  round  in  section  and  lined 
with  fire-brick.  For  a  short  distance  up  from  the 
bottom  the  sides  are  straight,  then  rapidly  con- 
verge, and  then  contract  again  to  about  the  same 
diameter  as  the  bottom.  Such  a  furnace,  with  its 
accompanying  'hot-stoves,'  is  shown,  partly  in 
section,  in  Fig.  228. 

The  blast-furnace  here  illustrated  is  about  80  feet 
high  and  20  feet  inside  diameter  at  its  largest  point. 

Heated  air,  under  pressure,  is  blown  into  the  fur- 
nace through  water  cooled  tuyeres  placed  a  short 
distance  above  the  bed,  or  bottom,  of  the  furnace. 

When  the  furnace  is  in  operation,  there  is  a  bed 
of  burning  coke  extending  somewhat  below  the 
level  of  the  tuyeres ;  on  this  is  a  charge,  or  layer,  of 
mixed  ore  and  limestone,  then  a  layer  of  fuel, 
another  layer  of  ore  and  limestone,  etc.,  until  the 
furnace  is  nearly  filled,  more  ore  and  fuel  being 
added  as  the  mass  settles  down  in  the  furnace. 
The  limestone  acts  as  a  flux  and  helps  to  carry  off, 
as  slag,  earthy  impurities  in  the  ore.  The  ore,  as 
it  melts,  is  deoxidized;  that  is,  the  oxygen  is  car- 
ried off,  and  the  molten  iron,  being  much  heavier 
than  the  other  material  in  the  furnace,  sinks  to  the 
bottom. 


METALLURGY   OF   IRON    AND    STEEL.  iCl 

When  enough  melted  iron  has  collected  in  the 
bottom,  or  hearth,  of  the  furnace,  a  small  hole  is 
opened,  and  the  molten  metal  flows  out  and  runs 


By  Courtesy  of  The  Scientific  A  merican. 

FIG.  228. 

into  a  series  of  small  ditches,  much  like  a  gridiron, 
where  it  cools,  and  is  then  broken  up  into  pieces 
4  or  5  feet  long.  These  pieces  are  called '  pigs ' ;  and 
in  this  form  cast  iron  is  marketed. 

When  castings  are  to  be  made,  these  'pigs'  are 


1 62  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

remelted  in  the  foundry,  in  a  furnace  called  a  cupola, 
similar  to,  but  considerably  smaller  than,  the  blast- 
furnace. 

It  was  the  custom  some  years  ago  to  allow  the 
hot  gases  to  escape  from  the  top  of  the  furnace 
and  to  blow  in  cold  blast  through  the  tuyeres. 
Now  the  top  of  the  furnace  is  kept  closed  by  means 
of  a  cone-shaped  casting  pulled  upward  against  a 
conical  rim,  slanting  downward. 

When  new  material  is  to  be  added  to  the  charge, 
the  ore  or  fuel  is  dumped  inside  the  slanting,  funnel- 
shaped  rim  and  the  cone  is  lowered,  allowing  the 
material  to  slide  downward,  when  the  cone  is  again 
raised,  thus  closing  the  furnace. 

Just  below  the  rim  a  large  pipe  opens  into  the 
furnace.  Through  this  pipe  the  hot  gases  are  led 
downward  into  the  'hot-stoves.' 

The  hot-stoves  are  iron  cylinders  about  20  feet  in 
diameter  and  80  feet  high,  filled  with  fire-brick  hav- 
ing small  holes,  or  flues,  extending  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  stove.  The  hot  gases  rise  through 
one  set  of  flues  and  descend  through  another,  thus 
heating  the  brick  to  a  high  temperature. 

After  leaving  the  stoves,  the  gases  are  carried 
through  underground  pipes  to  a  large  stack,  or 
chimney,  and  discharged  into  the  air.  When  a 
stove  has  been  thoroughly  heated  in  this  way  the 
gases  are  turned  into  other  stoves,  and  the  cold 
blast  from  the  blowing-engines  is  forced  through 
the  flues  in  the  heated  brick  on  its  way  to  the  blast- 
furnace. 

Each  stove  is  used  in  turn  in  this  way. 


METALLURGY   OF   IRON   AND    STEEL.  163 

The  blast  leaving  a  hot-stove  is  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature considerably  over  1000°  F.  The  use  of 
hot  blasts  effects  a  considerable  saving  in  the 
manufacture  of  cast  iron;  and  its  introduction  is 
regarded  as  marking  an  epoch  in  the  iron  indus- 
tries. 

Wrought  Iron. — It  will  be  seen  from  the  table 
that,  while  cast  iron  contains  a  comparatively 
large  amount  of  carbon,  wrought  iron  and  machine- 
steel  contain  very  little.  It  would  seem  only  nec- 
essary, then,  in  order  to  make  either  of  the  two 
last-named  metals,  to  remove  some  of  the  carbon 
from  cast  iron.  In  most  cases  this  is  exactly  what 
is  done.  First,  the  high-carbon  cast  iron  is  made, 
and  then  a  large  part  of  the  carbon  is  burned  out, 
leaving  the  low-carbon  wrought  iron,  or  machine- 
steel. 

Both  wrought  iron  and  machine-steel  are  made 
by  very  similar  processes,  the  essential  difference 
being  principally  the  temperature  at  which  the 
metals  are  worked. 

Fig.  229  represents  a  "puddling"  furnace  used 
for  making  wrought  iron.  The  sketch  shows  a  sec- 
tion running  the  length  of  the  furnace  through  its 
center.  At  A  is  the  fireplace;  B,  the  hearth,  or 
puddle ;  and  the  stack,  or  flue,  at  C. 

A  fire  is  built  in  the  fireplace,  and  the  flames  on 
their  way  to  the  stack  are  deflected  downward,  by 
the  roof  of  the  furnace,  upon  the  iron  lying  on  the 
hearth.  The  iron  is  thus  brought  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  flames  without  being  in  direct  contact 
with  the  fire. 


164 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


Cast  iron,  together  with  hammer  scale,  or  some 
other  oxide  of  iron,  is  placed  upon  the  hearth  and 
melted  down.  The  fire  is  then  so  regulated  as  to 
give  an  oxidizing  flame;  that  is,  more  air  passed 
through  the  fire  than  can  be  burned,  leaving  a  sur- 
plus of  oxygen  in  the  flames  which  are  playing  over 


FIG.  229. 

the  melted  iron  on  the  hearth.  The  oxygen  in  the 
flames,  as  well  as  that  in  the  hammer  scale,  or  iron 
ore,  melted  with  the  cast  iron,  gradually  burns  out 
the  carbon  of  the  cast  iron.  The  melted  mass  is 
constantly  stirred  in  order  to  expose  all  parts  to 
the  influence  of  the  flames. 

As  a  general  rule,  the  more  carbon  iron  contains 
the  easier  it  melts ;  so  cast  iron  will  melt  at  a  much 
lower  heat  than  wrought  iron.  A  temperature 
which  is  high  enough  to  melt  cast  iron  will  leave 
wrought  iron  in  sort  of  a  pasty  condition. 

When  making  wrought  iron,  as  the  carbon  is 
burned  out  of  the  iron  the  temperature  of  the  fur- 
nace is  kept  below  the  melting-point  of  wrought 
iron,  but  above  that  of  cast  iron ;  and,  as  the  carbon 
is  burned  out,  the  metal  stiffens  and  becomes  pasty ; 
and,  as  the  process  is  completed,  the  pasty  mass  is 


METALLURGY   OF    IRON    AND    STEEL.  165 

worked  up  into  balls,  which  at  the  completion  of 
the  process  are  taken  from  the  furnace  and  ham- 
mered or  rolled  into  bars. 

There  is  more  or  less  slag  with  the  iron  in  the 
puddle,  and  some  of  this  slag  sticks  to  the  iron, 
and  drops  of  it  are  mixed  with  the  iron  in  the  balls. 
Some  of  this  slag  is  squeezed  from  the  balls,  but 
part  of  it  remains  in  small  drops  all  through  the 
mass.  When  the  balls  are  drawn  out  into  shape, 
these  small  drops  of  slag  are  lengthened  out  and 
form  minute  streaks  running  through  the  length  of 
the  bar.  These  small  seams  of  slag  give  wrought 
iron  its  peculiar  characteristics  together  with  its 
fibrous  structure. 

Machine-steel. — Machine-steel  is  variously  known 
as  machine-steel,  machinery-steel,  low-carbon  steel, 
mild  steel,  and  soft  steel.  The  common  shop  name 
is  machine-  or  machinery-steel,  while  the  more 
correct  technical  term  is  low-carbon  steel. 

Machine-steel  contains  about  the  same  amount  of 
carbon  as  wrought  iron,  but  does  not  have  the  slag 
seams  of  the  iron.  Like  wrought  iron,  it  is  made 
by  reducing  the  amount  of  carbon  in  cast  iron. 

Machine-steel  may  be  divided  into  two  classes, 
open-hearth  and  Bessemer,  both  deriving  their 
names  from  the  method  of  manufacture. 

Bessemer  steel  is  made  by  blowing  air  through 
melted  cast  iron,  the  oxygen  in  the  air  burning  out 
the  silicon  and  carbon,  all  of  the  carbon,  as  nearly 
as  possible,  being  removed  in  this  way,  the  proper 
amount  of  carbon  afterward  being  added  to  the 
steel  in  the  form  of  "  spiegeleisen " — a  form  of 
cast  iron  very  rich  in  manganese,  carbon,  and  silicon. 


1 66  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

In  this  process  the  cast  iron  is  treated  in  a  vessel 
known  as  a  converter.  The  converter  is  a  large 
barrel-shaped  steel  or  iron  vessel,  15  or  20  ft.  high, 
lined  with  fire-brick,  and  having  a  bottom  pierced 
with  many  small  holes  through  which  air  is  blown. 
The  top  is  covered,  with  the  exception  of  a  short, 
spout-shaped  opening  about  3  ft.  in  diameter. 
The  converter  is  mounted  on  trunnions,  and  may 
be  turned  upside  down,  right  side  up,  or  any  inter- 
mediate position. 

In  operation,  the  converter  is  turned  in  a  horizon- 
tal position,  a  charge  of  melted  cast  iron  poured  in 
at  the  mouth,  and  the  blast  turned  on.  The  blast 
has  sufficient  pressure  to  prevent  the  melted  iron 
from  flowing  down  into  the  tuyeres  in  the  bottom. 
The  vessel  is  then  turned  on  its  trunnions  into  an 
upright  position  and  the  air  blown  through  the 
metal  until  practically  all  the  carbon  has  been 
burned  out.  The  exact  condition  of  the  metal  is 
shown  by  the  flame  coming  from  the  mouth  of  the 
converter,  this  flame  changing  in  color  and  volume 
as  the  silicon  and  carbon  are  gradually  burned. 
When  the  carbon  has  been  consumed,  the  converter 
is  again  turned  on  its  side,  the  blast  stopped,  -the 
necessary  amount  of  spiegeleisen  added  to  give  the 
proper  per  cent  of  carbon  and  manganese,  and  the 
contents  of  the  vessel  poured  into  a  large  casting 
ladle.  From  the  ladle  the  metal  is  poured  into 
moulds  and  cast  into  ' '  ingots." 

If  the  "blowing"  is  continued  too  long,  the  iron 
itself  will  begin  to  burn,  making  the  metal ' ' rotten" 
and  crumbly  when  working. 

It  seems  like  a  waste  of  time  to  burn  all  the  carbon 


METALLURGY   OF   IRON   AND    STEEL. 


167 


out  and  then  add  more;  but  it  is  easier  to  remove 
nearly  all  the  carbon  and  replace  some  of  it  than  to 
Stop  the  blow  at  just  the  moment  when  the  carbon 
content  is  right. 

This  process  derives  its  name  from  Sir  Henry 
Bessemer,  credited  with  its  invention,  and  has  been 
used  since  about  1858. 

Open-hearth  steel  is  made  by  melting  together 
pig  iron,  cast  iron,  and  scrap  iron  and  steel,  and 
removing  the  carbon  by  the  action  of  an  oxidizing 
flame  of  burning  gas. 

The  process  is  carried  out  in  a  furnace  the  same  in 
principle  as,  but  more  elaborate  in  construction  than, 
the  puddling-furnace  used  in  making  wrought  iron. 

A  view  and  partial  section  of  a  large  open-hearth 
furnace  is  shown  in  Fig.  230.  The  fuel  used  is  pro- 


By  courtesy  of  the  Scientific  American. 

FIG.  230. 

ducer-gas.     This  is  made  by  burning  coal  in  air- 
tight retorts,  not  enough  air  being  supplied  to  give 


1 68  FORGK-PRA(TI(T.. 

complete  combustion.  The  gas  from  these  retorts 
is  forced  into  the  furnace  through  valves  and  a 
mass  of  heated  brickwork  pierced  with  holes.  Air 
is  also  supplied  to  the  furnace  through  a  similar 
arrangement,  the  air  and  gas  entering  through 
openings  near  each  other  and  combining  to  make 
an  intensely  hot  flame.  This  flame  plays  over  the 
metal  lying  on  the  hearth  of  the  furnace  and  per- 
forms exactly  the  same  work  as  the  flame  from  the 
fire  in  the  puddling-furnace. 

The  hot  gases  from  the  furnace,  instead  of  being 
allowed  to  escape,  are  first  led  through  an  arrange- 
ment of  brickwork  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  fur- 
nace, similar  to  the  heated  brickwork  through 
which  the  entering  gas  and  air  were  forced. 

After  a  short  time  the  valves,  through  which  the 
air  and  gas  are  admitted,  are  turned,  and  the  air 
and  gas  are  forced  through  the  brickwork  which 
has  been  heating,  the  flames  being  then  led  through 
the  first  set  of  bricks,  which  is,  in  its  turn,  heated, 
this  reversal  of  the  flow  taking  place  several  times 
an  hour.  This  arrangement  is  very  similar  to  the 
hot-stoves  used  with  the  blast-furnace. 

Under  the  action  of  the  gas-flame  the  carbon  is 
gradually  oxidized,  and  when  it  has  been  reduced 
to"  the  proper  percentage  the  melted  metal  is 
drawn  from  the  hearth  and  cast  into  ingots. 

This  process  takes  much  longer  than  the  Besse- 
mer, but  may  be  stopped  at  any  moment  when  the 
steel  contains  the  proper  amount  of  carbon. 

As  a  comparison  of  the  two  different  processes,  it 
may  be  said  that  open-hearth  steel,  from  the  nature 


METALLURGY   OF   IRON   AND    STEEL.  169 

of  the  process,  may  be  tested  and  corrected  from 
time  to  time  while  it  is  being  converted,  while 
Bessemer  steel  is  converted  so  rapidly  that  none  of 
this  testing  can  be  done. 

Bessemer  steel  is  used  mostly  for  rails,  also  to 
some  extent  for  structural  shapes  and  cheaper 
boiler-steel,  etc. 

Open-hearth  steel  is  used  for  best  grades  of 
boiler-plate,  structural  steel,  etc. 

The  United  States  Government  specifies  that 
sheet  steel  used  in  marine  boilers  must  be  made  by 
the  open-hearth  process. 

When  machine-steel  is  made,  the  temperature  of 
the  furnace  is  high  enough  to  keep  the  metal  liquid 
during  the  entire  process.  In  this  way  the  slag 
floats  to  the  top  of  the  iron  and  does  not  remain 
mixed  with  it,  as  when  making  wrought  iron. 

After  sufficient  carbon  has  been  taken  from  the 
iron,,  and  while  the  metal  is  still  in  a  molten  condi- 
tion, it  is  drawn  off  from  underneath  the  slag,  cast 
into  ingots,  and  later  rolled  into  bars.  This  gives 
the  steel  a  granular,  not  a  fibrous,  structure,  and 
leaves  it  free  from  the  slag  contained  in  wrought 
iron. 

Tool-steel. — Tool-steel  may  be  made  by  the 
process  outlined  above — that  is,  by  making  a 
high-carbon  open-hearth  or  Bessemer  steel;  but 
the  best  steel  is  made  by  the  '  'crucible"  process. 

Ordinary  tool-steel  contains  about  i  per  cent  car- 
bon, and  may  be  made  either  by  taking  some  of  the 
carbon  from  cast  iron,  which  might  be  done  by  the 
methods  above,  or  adding  carbon  to  wrought  iron. 


1 70  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

The  last  is  the  method  in  common  use.  In  the 
crucible  process,  small  pieces  of  wrought  iron,  steel 
scrap,  and  other  material  rich  in  carbon  are  mixed 
in  proper  proportions  to  give  the  desired  percentage 
of  carbon  and  are  placed  in  a  crucible.  The  cruci- 
ble is  covered  with  a  lid  to  prevent  the  oxidation 
of  the  melted  metal,  placed  in  a  furnace  and  the 
mixture  melted  down.  When  the  metal  has  been 
melted  and  properly  mixed,  the  crucible  is  taken 
from  the  furnace  and  the  steel  poured  into  a  mold 
and  cast  into  an  ingot,  which  is  afterward  rolled  into 
bars. 

What  was  known  as  "blister  steel"  was  once 
made  in  almost  the  same  way  ' '  case-hardening ' '  is 
now  done.  "  Harveyizing "  armor  plate  is  also 
done  in  somewhat  the  same  way. 

The  process  was  based  on  the  fact  that  when 
wrought  iron  is  heated  in  contact  with  some  sub- 
stance very  rich  in  carbon,  it  will  gradually  absorb 
the  carbon  from  those  substances  and  be  converted 
into  high-carbon  steel.  This  is  the  principle  used 
when  making  blister  steel  or  in  case-hardening. 

Steel  was  at  one  time  commonly  made  by  sur- 
rounding bars  of  wrought  iron  with  charcoal  and 
sealing  the  bars  and  the  charcoal  in  air-tight 
boxes,  this  being  necessary  to  prevent  oxidation 
during  the  heating  which  followed.  The  boxes 
were  heated  to  a  high  temperature  and  held  at 
that  heat  for  several  days.  The  outside  of  the  bars 
was  carbonized  first,  thus  making  a  shell,  or  coat- 
ing, of  tool-steel  around  a  soft,  wrought-iron  center. 
In  other  words,  carbon  was  added  to  the  low-carbon 


METALLURGY  OF  IRON  AND  STEEL.  17  r 

wrought  iron  and  converted  it  into  high-carbon 
tool-steel.  As  the  heating  was  continued,  the 
carbon  worked  in  deeper  and  deeper,  but  the  inside 
of  the  bar  would  not  become  as  highly  carbonized 
as  the  outside  and  the  steel  was  ' '  streaky." 

After  bars  were  carbonized  in  this  way,  they 
were  cut  into  lengths  and  welded  together,  making 
the  steel  more  uniform  in  structure,  but  not  nearly 
as  uniform  as  modern  "crucible"  steel. 

Comparison  of  Wrought-iron  and  Machine-steel. — 
Both  wrought-iron  and  low-carbon  steel  are  chem- 
ically about  the  same;  that  is,  a  sample  of  each 
may  contain  about  the  same  amount  of  carbon, 
etc.,  and  yet  the  two  materials  may  be  very  differ- 
ent. 

The  broken  end  of  a  bar  of  iron  has  a  stringy, 
fibrous  appearance,  while  machine-steel  shows  a 
more  crystalline,  grainy  fracture.  It  is  this  struc- 
tural condition  that  marks  the  distinction  between 
the  two  metals. 

The  fiber  of  the  wrought  iron  is  produced  by 
minute,  slag  seams.  Each  one  of  these  slag  seams 
is  more  or  less  a  source  of  weakness,  as  the  slag, 
being  much  weaker  than  the  iron,  is  liable  to  give 
way,  causing  a  crack.  The  presence  of  the  slag 
is  of  some  advantage  when  welding,  acting  as  a 
flux. 

Wrought  iron  is  much  more  liable  to  split  than 
machine-steel  when  being  forged,  and,  while  it 
may  be  heated  and  worked  at  a  slightly  higher 
temperature  than  steel,  wjll  not  stand  as  much 
hammering  at  a  lower  temperature. 


172  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Machine-steel  is  stronger  than  wrought  iron,  hav- 
ing a  tensile  strength  very  much  higher. 

Machine-steel  may  be  welded  easily  without  a 
flux;  but  sound  welds  are  more  easily  made  when 
a  flux  is  used,  the  welding  being  done  at  a  slightly 
lower  heat  than  the  welding  heat  of  wrought  iron. 

Machine-steel  may  not  be  distinguished  from 
wrought  iron  by  the  hardening  test.  Some  irons 
may  be  slightly  hardened,  while  many  low-carbon 
steels  can  not  be  hardened  to  any  appreciable  ex- 
tent. The  Government  specifications  for  boiler- 
plate state  that  the  steel  used  in  boilers  shall  be 
capable  of  being  heated  to  a  red  heat,  plunged  in 
cold  water,  and  then  bent  double,  cold — showing 
by  this  that  steel  does  not  necessarily  harden. 

In  brief:  In  a  forging,  when  much  welding  is  to 
be  done,  wrought  iron  has  some  advantages;  but, 
for  general  work — particularly  when  much  forging 
is  required — machine-steel  is  to  be  preferred,  being 
stronger  and  less  liable  to  split. 

The  fibrous  structure  of  wrought  iron  is  well 
shown  by  taking  a  piece  5"  or  6"  long  and  treating 
it  with  weak  acid  for  a  day  or  so.  The  acid  will 
etch  in  the  iron  and  leave  the  fibers  of  slag  standing 
in  relief. 

Properties  of  Wrought  Iron,  Mild  Steel,  and  Tool- 
steel. —  In  brief,  the  valuable  properties  of  the 
different  metals  are  as  follows: 

Wrought  iron :  Easily  welded ;  easily  hammered, 
or  forged,  into  shape  while  hot;  can  be  worked  to 
some  extent  while  cold;  will  not  harden  to  any 
extent ;  particularly  good  for  welds. 


METALLURGY   OF    IRON   AND    STEEL.  173 

Mild  steel:  Easily  welded;  easily  hammered,  or 
forged,  into  shape  while  hot ;  can  be  worked  to  some 
extent  while  cold ;  will  not  harden  to  any  -extent ; 
particularly  good  for  forging ;  stronger  than  wrought 
iron. 

Tool-steel:  Particularly  valuable  on  account  of 
its  hardening  property;  much  stronger  than  mild 
steel  in  tensile  strength;  used  principally  for  mak- 
ing tools  and  parts  of  machines  where  wearing  qual- 
ities are  required;  welds  with  difficulty,  sometimes 
not  at  all;  properties  depend  to  large  extent  upon 
percentage  of  carbon  present. 


CHAPTER  X. 

TOOL-STEEL  WORK. 

Tool-steel. — Ordinary  tool-steel  is  practically  a 
combination  of  iron  and  carbon.  The  kind  com- 
monly used  for  small  tools  contains  about  i  per  cent 
carbon. 

Steel  which  contains  a  large  amount  of  carbon  is 
known  as  "high"  carbon  steel,  while  that  having  a 
small  amount  is  called  "low"  carbon  steel.  Steel- 
makers  use  the  word  "temper"  as  referring  to  the 
amount  of  carbon  a  steel  contains;  thus  a  steel- 
maker speaks  of  a  high-temper  steel  as  meaning  a 
steel  containing  a  large  amount  of  carbon,  and  a 
low  temper  as  meaning  a  small  amount  of  carbon. 

Steel  is  also  designated  by  the  number  of  hun- 
dredths  of  i-per-cent  carbon  which  it  contains. 
For  instance,  a  one-hundred-carbon  steel  contains 
i  per  cent,  or  one  hundred  hundredths  per  cent 
carbon,  a  forty-carbon  steel  contains  forty  hun- 
dredths per  cent  carbon,  etc. 

The  property  of  tool-steel  which  makes  it  par- 
ticularly valuable  is  the  fact  that  it  can  be  hardened 
to  a  greater  or  less  degree  to  suit  the  purpose  for 
which  it  is  intended. 

Hardening. — If  a  piece  of  tool-steel  be  heated 

174 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  175 

red-hot  and  then  suddenly  cooled  it  becomes  very 
hard.  This  is  known  as  "hardening."  If  the 
reverse  be  done — the  steel  heated  red-hot  and 
cooled  very  slowly — it  will  be  softened.  This  is 
known  as  "annealing."  In  other  words — the  speed 
at  which  a  piece  of  steel  is  cooled  from  a  high  heat 
determines  its  hardness;  thus,  if  steel  is  cooled 
very  fast  it  becomes  very  hard ;  if  cooled  very  slowly 
it  is  softened,  and  by  varying  the  speed  of  the  cool- 
ing the  hardness  of  the  steel  may  be  varied. 

The  proper  heat  from  which  the  steel  should  be 
cooled  varies  with  the  percentage  of  carbon  in  the 
steel.  As  a  general  rule,  the  greater  the  amount 
of  carbon,  the  lower  the  hardening  heat — that  is, 
a  "high"  steel  will  harden  at  a  much  lower  tem- 
perature than  a  ' '  low"  carbon  steel. 

The  only  way  to  determine  the  proper  heat  at 
which  to  harden  any  particular  kind  of  steel  is  by 
experiment.  This  may  be  easily  done  as  follows: 
A  small  piece  of  the  same  kind  of  steel  as  that  to 
be  hardened  is  hammered  out  into  a  bar  about  \" 
or  f"  square.  The  end  of  this  bar  is  heated  until 
it  shows  dull  red  and  then  cooled  in  cold  water. 
The  end  should  be  tried  with  a  file  and  about  \" 
broken  off  over  the  corner  of  the  anvil. 

It  will  probably  be  found  that  the  steel  may  be 
filed,  and  breaks  with  difficulty,  the  grain  of  the 
broken  end  being  rather  coarse  and  somewhat 
stringy.  The  same  experiment  should  be  repeated 
at  a  slightly  higher  heat.  This  time  the  steel  will 
be  harder — shown  by  its  being  harder  to  file  and 
more  easily  broken — and  the  grain  will  be  slightly 


176  FORGE-PRACTIOF.. 

finer.  This  experiment  should  be  repeated,  rais- 
ing the  heat  slightly  each  time,  until  a  heat  is 
reached  which,  after  cooling,  leaves  the  steel  so 
hard  that  the  file  will  slip  over  without  catching 
at  all,  and  so  brittle  that  it  snaps  very  easily. 
When  broken,  the  break  shows  a  very  fine,  even 
grain.  This  is  the  proper  heat  at  which  to  harden 
that  particular  kind  of  steel,  and  is  called  the 
' ' hardening  heat." 

If  the  experimenting  be  continued  it  will  be  seen 
that  each  additional  increase  of  temperature,  above 
the  hardening  heat,  increases  the  coarseness  of  the 
grain  and  makes  the  steel  very  brittle,  indicating 
that  the  steel,  when  hardened  at  these  higher  heats, 
grows  coarser  and  less  fine  in  texture,  and,  conse- 
quently, is  not  as  strong,  and  will  not  hold  as  good 
a  cutting  edge,  as  if  hardened  at  the  proper  ' '  hard- 
ening" heat. 

The  proper  heat  at  which  to  harden  any  kind  of 
steel  is,  as  noted  above,  that  particular  heat  that 
gives  the  steel  the  finest  grain  and  leaves  it  file 
hard. 

The  two  general  laws  of  hardening  are  these : 

1.  The  more  carbon  a  steel  contains  the  lower 
the  heat  at  which  it  may  be  properly  hardened. 

2.  The  faster  steel  is  cooled  from  the  hardening 
heat  the  harder  it  becomes. 

Tempering.  —  Giving  a  piece  of  steel  or  a  tool 
the  proper  degree  of  hardness  to  do  the  work  for 
which  it  is  intended  is  known  as  "tempering." 

The  steel-workers  use  the  word  "temper"  in  a 
very  different  sense  from  the  steel-makers.  ' '  Tern- 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  177 

per"  is  used  by  the  tool-maker,  or  tool-smith,  as 
meaning  the  hardness  of  a  tool  or  piece  of  tempered 
steel,  regardless  of  the  amount  of  carbon  it  con- 
tains. 

Tools  hardened  as  described  above  (heated  to 
hardening  heat  and  cooled  in  cold  water)  are  too 
hard  and  brittle  for  most  uses,  and  must  be  softened 
somewhat  to  fit  them  to  perform  the  work  they  are 
intended  for. 

The  operation  of  slightly  softening  the  hardened 
steel  is  known  as  ' '  drawing  the  temper, ' '  and  this 
is  accomplished  by  slightly  reheating  the  previ- 
ously hardened  steel. 

If  a  piece  of  hardened  steel  be  heated  to  a  tem- 
perature of  about  430°  F.  it  will  be  very  slightly 
softened  and  toughened,  being  left  about  hard 
enough  for  engraving-tools,  small  lathe- tools, 
scrapers,  etc.  If  the  heat  be  raised  to  460°  F.  or 
500°  F.,  the  hardness  is  about  right  for  taps,  dies, 
drills,  etc.  Reheating  to  550°  F.  or  560°  F.  makes 
the  hardened  steel  about  right  for  cold-chisels,  saws, 
etc.;  while  a  temperature  of  570°  F.  leaves  very 
little  hardness  in  the  steel — just  about  right  for 
springs.  When  a  temperature  of  650°  F.  is  reached 
the  ' '  temper ' '  is  all  gone  and  the  steel  is  left  soft 
enough  to  be  easily  filed.  With  a  slight  increase 
of  temperature  above  this  point  the  steel  becomes 
red-hot. 

These  temperatures  to  which  the  steel  is  reheated 
may  be  measured  in  several  ways.  One  way  would 
be  to  heat  a  bath  of  oil  to  the  proper  temperature 
and,  after  hardening,  dip  the  tools  in  this  until  they 


178  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

were  of  the  same  temperature  as  the  bath.  This 
would  answer  for  tempering  on  a  large  scale,  but 
is  hardly  practical  when  only  a  few  tools  are  to  be 
treated. 

The  steel  itself  furnishes  about  the  easiest  means 
of  roughly  determining  this  temperature.  If  a 
piece  of  steel  or  iron  be  polished  bright  and  heated, 
a  thin  scale  forms  on  the  outside,  which  changes  color 
as  the  temperature  is  increased.  When  the  scale 
first  commences  to  appear,  at  a  temperature  of 
about  430°  F.,  the  surface  of  the  steel  seems  to  turn 
a  very  pale  yellow ;  as  the  temperature  increases  and 
the  scale  grows  thicker,  this  yellow  becomes  darker, 
changes  into  brown,  which  becomes  tinged  with 
red,  turning  into  light  purple,  dark  purple,  and 
finally  blue.  These  colors  are  due  to  the  thin  oxide 
or  scale  formed  and  show  nothing  except  the  tem- 
perature to  which  the  metal  was  last  heated. 

A  piece  of  wrought  iron  or  soft  steel  will,  when 
heated,  show  these  colors  as  well  as  tool-steel.  The 
colors  are  permanent  and  remain  after  the  metal 
is  cooled.  The  colored  scale  is  very  thin  and  may 
be  easily  removed  by  polishing. 

If  the  tool  is  not  properly  hardened  in  the  first 
place  the  fact  that  it  shows  the  proper  temper  color 
on  the  outside  means  nothing. 

About  the  only  way  to  test  the  temper  of  a  tool  is 
to  try  it  with  a  file,  and  even  then  the  grain  may 
be  too  coarse,  due  to  hardening  at  too  high  a  heat. 

The  complete  process  of  tempering  a  tool  (i.e., 
giving  it  the  proper  degree  of  hardness  to  perform 
its  work)  consists  of  first  hardening,  by  cooling  sud- 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  179 

denly  from  the  hardening  heat,  and  then  slightly 
softening,  by  reheating  to  a  comparatively  low 
temperature. 

After  the  reheating  the  steel  may  be  suddenly 
cooled  or  left  to  cool  in  the  air.  Sudden  cooling 
leaves  it  slightly  harder. 

The  higher  the  temperature  of  the  reheating,  up 
to  a  visible  red  heat,  the  softer  the  steel  and  the 
' '  lower ' '  the  temper. 

If  the  steel  is  by  accident  or  otherwise  reheated 
to  too  high  a  temperature  when  drawing  the  tem- 
per, the  tool  must  be  rehardened  and  the  temper 
again  drawn. 

When  there  is  any  doubt  as  to  the  proper  heat 
at  which  to  harden  any  piece  of  steel  it  is  much 
better  to  harden  at  too  low  rather- than  too  high  a 
heat.  If  hardened  at  too  low  a  heat  it  may  be 
reheated  and  again  hardened  at  a  proper  heat,  but 
if  too  high  a  heat  is  used  the  first  time  there  is  no 
way  of  detecting  the  fact,  and  the  tool  will  prob- 
ably break  the  first  time  used. 

As  a  general  rule,  a  tool  hardened  at  too  high  a 
heat  will  have  a  crumbly  and  scratchy  cutting 
edge. 

Tempering  Tools. — In  practice  tools  may  be  di- 
vided for  convenience  in  tempering  into  two  gen- 
eral classes: 

First,  tools  which  have  only  a  cutting  edge  tem- 
pered, such  as  most  lathe-tools,  cold-chisels,  etc. 

Second,  tools  tempered  to  a  uniform  hardness 
throughout,  or  for  a  considerable  length,  such  as 
dies,  reamers,  taps,  milling-cutters,  etc. 


l8o  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Tempering  Tools  when  Only  an  Edge  is  Hardened 
— Cold-chisel. — The  method  of  tempering  a  cold- 
chisel  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  tempering 
of  tools  in  the  first  class,  the  only  difference  in 
the  tempering  of  various  tools  in  this  class  being 
the  temperature  to  which  the  tools  are  reheated,  as 
shown  by  the  ' '  temper  color." 

A  table  showing  the  temperatures  to  which 
various  tools  should  be  reheated  after  hardening  to 
properly  ' '  draw  the  temper, ' '  together  with  the  so- 
called  "temper  colors,"  or  color  of  scale,  corre- 
sponding to  these  temperatures,  is  given  on  page 
248. 

After  the  chisel  has  been  forged  it  should  be 
allowed  to  cool  until  black.  The  cutting  end  is 
then  heated  to  the  proper  hardening  heat  for  two 
or  three  inches  back  from  the  edge,  care  being 
taken  no£  to  heat  the  steel  above  the  hardening  heat. 
(Steel  should  always  be  hardened  at  a  rising  heat.) 
The  heated  end  is  then  hardened  by  cooling  about 
two  inches  of  the  point  in  cold  water,  the  end  being 
left  in  the  water  just  long  enough  to  cool  it.  The 
chisel  is  then  withdrawn  from  the  water  and  the 
end  polished  with  a  piece  of  emery-paper,  old  grind- 
stone, or  something  of  that  character. 

As  part  of  the  chisel  is  still  red-hot  the  heat  from 
this  hot  part  will  gradually  reheat  the  cold  end, 
thus  "drawing  the  temper."  "Temper  colors" 
will  begin  to  show  next  the  heated  part,  and  as 
the  cold  end  is  reheated  the  band  of  colors  will 
move  toward  the  point  of  the  chisel.  When  a  deep 
bluish-purple  color  shows  at  the  cutting  edge  the 


TOOL-STEEL   WORK.  l8l 

tool  is  again  cooled  in  order  to  prevent  further 
reheating  and  softening  of  the  steel. 

Should  part  of  the  chisel  be  still  red-hot  when 
the  end  is  cooled  the  second  time,  then  only  the 
end  should  be  dipped  in  the  water  and  the  tool  held 
there  until  all  of  the  chisel  is  black,  when  the  entire 
length  may  be  cooled. 

If  it  were  a  lathe-tool  being  tempered  the  process 
would  be  the  same  excepting  the  tool  should  be 
cooled  the  second  time  when  the  yellow  scale  appears 
at  the  cutting  edge. 

When  hardening  the  ends  of  tools  as  described 
above,  the  tool  while  in  the  water  should  be  kept 
in  constant  motion  to  prevent  cooling  the  steel 
along  a  sharp  line,  as  well  as  to  keep  up  a  circula- 
tion of  water  around  the  cooling  metal. 

Tempering  Tools  of  the  Second  Class  (Hardened 
all  Through). — Tools  of  the  second  class  (those  of 
uniform  hardness  throughout)  may  be  tempered  as 
follows :  The  whole  tool  is  first  heated  to  a  uniform 
hardening  heat  and  cooled  completely,  thus  harden- 
ing it  throughout.  The  surface  is  then  polished 
bright  and  the  temper  drawn  by  laying  the  tool  on 
a  piece  of  red-hot  iron  until  the  surface  shows  the 
desired  color,  generally  dark  yellow  or  light  brown 
for  such  tools  as  taps,  dies,  milling-cutters,  etc. 

While  reheating  on  the  iron  the  tool  should  be 
turned  almost  constantly,  otherwise  the  parts  in 
contact  with  the  iron  will  become  overheated,  and 
consequently  too  soft,  before  the  other  parts  are 
hot  enough. 

Sometimes  the  reheating  is  done  on  a  bath  of 


1 82  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

melted  lead  or  heated  sand.  Large  pieces  arc 
sometimes  ' '  drawn ' '  over  a  slow  fire  or  on  a  sheet 
of  iron  laid  over  the  fire. 

Recalescence. — There  is  a  peculiar  fact  which 
helps  to  determine  the  proper  hardening  temper- 
ature of  a  piece  of  steel.  If  a  piece  of  steel  be 
heated  to  about  a  bright-red  heat  and  allowed  to 
cool,  it  will  cool  gradually  until  a  temperature  is 
reached  at  which  it  seems  to  grow  hotter;  that  is, 
it  grows  darker  in  color,  and  then,  when  the  critical 
temperature  is  reached,  it  becomes  lighter  for  an 
instant  and  then  gradually  cools  down.  The  tem- 
perature at  which  this  seeming  reheating  takes 
place  is  about  the  proper  hardening  heat. 

This  phenomenon  is  known  as  "Recalescence." 
An  attempt  is  made  in  Fig.  231  to  illustrate  the 


FIG.  231. 

action  of  the  heated  bar  at  the  point  of  recales- 
cence.  A  shows  the  heated  bar  as  it  comes  from 
the  fire — the  hottest  part  showing  lightest.  At 
B  the  steel  has  cooled  slightly  and  the  heat  of 
recalescence  begins  to  show  at  the  light  point  about 
the  centre  of  the  bar.  At  C  the  first  streak  has 


TOOL-STEEL   WORK.  1^3 

shifted  somewhat  and  the  end  begins  apparently 
to  reheat,  this  second  streak  gradually  moving  up 
as  illustrated  at  D,  E,  and  F,  until  at  G  the  bar 
has  passed  the  critical  temperature  and  cools  down 
normally. 

This  illustration  is  somewhat  the  same  as  that 
shown  by  Howe  in  his  "Metallurgy  of  Steel," 
which  gives  an  excellent  explanation  of  this  phe- 
nomenon. 

The  temperature  at  which  this  reheating  occurs 
depends  upon  the  amount  of  carbon  in  the  steel, 
being  higher  for  the  lower  carbon  steel,  and  it  is 
at  about  this  temperature  that  the  steel  will  harden 
properly. 

The  hardening  heat  of  steel  is  often  described 
as  a  "cherry -red"  heat.  This  term  is  very  mis- 
leading and  means  very  little.  Such  an  author- 
ity as  Metcalf  says:  "Cherries  are  all  shades  from 
very  light  yellow  to  almost  black;  and  'cherry' 
heat  seems  to  mean  almost  any  of  these  various 
colors." 

It  is  a  good  plan  when  taking  the  steel  from  the 
fire  to  hold  it  for  an  instant  in  the  shadow  of  the 
forge,  as  the  hardening  heat  may  be  distinguished 
with  more  certainty  in  this  way.  The  color  of  the 
heat  will  appear  quite  different  here  than  in  the 
sunlight,  and  there  is  a  better  chance  of  obtain- 
ing uniform  heat  by  judging  in  the  shadow  than 
in  the  open  sunlight,  which  varies  so  much  in  in- 
tensity. 

Rate  of  Cooling — Different  Hardening  Baths. — The 
more  quickly  steel  is  cooled  for  a  hardening  heat 


184  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

(everything  else  being  equal),  the  harder  and  more 
brittle  the  steel  is  made. 

Files,  wanted  very  hard,  are  hardened  by  cooling 
in  a  bath  of  cold  brine ;  as  the  brine  cools  the  steel 
faster  than  water  the  steel  is  left  harder  than  if 
hardened  in  water. 

Springs  wanted  tough  and  not  very  hard  are 
cooled  in  oil,  as  oil  cools  much  slower  than  water. 

Sometimes  articles  delicately  shaped  and  liable; 
to  crack  when  hardening  are  cooled  in  water  having 
a  thin  film  of  oil  on  top ;  the  oil  sticks  to  the  steel 
as  it  is  plunged  into  the  water  and  the  steel  is  not 
cooled  quite  as  quickly  as  in  pure  water. 

The  faster  steel  is  cooled  the  more  danger  there 
is  of  cracking. 

Heating  and  Cooling — Importance  of  Uniform 
Heating.  —  The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  when 
hardening  to  have  the  steel  uniformly  heated.  It 
must  not  be  left  in  the  fire  one  minute  longer  than 
is  necessary  to  accomplish  this ;  but  it  must  be  uni- 
formly heated  or  the  results  are  liable  to  be  disas- 
trous. Take  a  milling-cutter,  for  example,  with 
sharp-pointed,  projecting  teeth.  The  points  of 
these  teeth  may  become  much  hotter  than  the  body 
of  the  cutter  while  being  heated.  If  dipped  while 
the  points  are  hotter,  they  are  almost  certain  to 
crack  off. 

Too  much  importance  can  not  be  attached  to  uni- 
form heating.  It  is  safe  to  say  that  probably  the 
failure  of  three-quarters  of  the  work  spoiled  in  hard- 
ening is  caused  by  improper  heating. 

When  it  is  necessary  to  heat  milling-cutters  and 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  185 

flat  tools  in  an  open  fire,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  lay  a 
piece  of  thin,  flat  iron  on  the  fire  and  heat  the  steel 
on  this.  The  steel  does  not  then  come  in  direct 
contact  with  the  fire  and  may  be  more  uniformly 
heated. 

For  heating  taps,  small-end  mills,  etc.,  a  piece  of 
pipe  may  be  laid  through  the  fire  and  the  tools 
heated  in  this.  The  pipe  forms  a  crude  muffle, 
which  is  very  satisfactory  for  such  work. 

The  most  satisfactory  way  to  harden  is  to  use  a 
gas-furnace,  but  this  is  not  always  obtainable. 

Lead  Hardening  and  Tempering. — A  bath  of  lead 
is  frequently  used  for  heating  both  when  hardening 
and  drawing  the  temper. 

When  hardening  the  lead  is  heated  red-hot  (hard- 
ening heat  of  the  steel)  and  the  tools  to  be  hardened 
are  held  in  the  lead  until  heated  to  the  proper  tem- 
perature. 

The  top  of  the  hot  lead  is  kept  covered  with  char- 
coal to  prevent  oxidation,  otherwise,  the  lead 
when  exposed  to  the  air  would  be  rapidly  oxidized 
and  wasted. 

The  steel  is  cooled  in  the  ordinary  way. 

This  is  a  very  satisfactory  way  to  harden,  as  the 
steel  may  be  very  uniformly  heated.  For  small 
work  the  lead  may  be  heated  in  an  ordinary  ladle; 
for  larger  pieces  some  special  arrangement  is  neces- 
sary. 

When  drawing  the  temper  the  lead  is  not  heated 
as  hot  as  when  hardening,  and  the  pieces  to  be  tem- 
pered are  laid  on  top  of  the  melted  lead.  The 
steel,  being  lighter  than  lead,  will  float  on  top  and 


J86  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

may  then  be  easily  watched  during  the  heating. 
The  pieces  to  be  tempered  are  polished  and  heated 
until  the  proper  colors  appear — the  same  as  when 
heated  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Warping  in  Cooling. — When  heated  steel  is  cooled 
it  contracts,  and  unless  contracting  takes  place 
uniformly  on  all  sides  the  piece  is  liable  to  be 
warped,  or  sprung,  out  of  shape.  If,  for  instance, 
a  long,  thin,  flat  piece  of  steel  were  to  be  hardened 
by  dipping  into  the  cooling  bath  edgewise  or  flat- 
wise it  would  probably  spring  out  of  shape.  If 
dipped  endwise  the  piece  would  be  cooled  from  all 
sides  at  once  and  would  stand  a  better  chance  of 
coming  out  of  the  cooling  bath  straight. 

As  a  general  rule,  it  is  better  to  dip  cylindrical 
and  long  thin  pieces  endwise ;  round,  thin  discs  and 
square  flat  pieces  edgewise. 

Cooling  Thin  Flat  Work. — Very  thin  flat  work  of 
uniform  thickness  is  easily  hardened  as  follows: 
The  piece  is  heated  to  a  hardening  heat  and  cooled 
between  two  heavy  plates  of  iron  having  flat  faces 
smeared  with  oil.  The  piece  is  laid  on  one  plate 
and  the  other  quickly  laid  on  top.  This  leaves  the 
work  hard  and  very  true  and  flat.  Pieces  which 
would  be  warped  all  out  of  shape  if  cooled  in  water 
or  oil  may  be  easily  hardened  in  this  way.  The 
temper  is  drawn  in  the  ordinary  way. 

Hardening  Files — Straightening  Long  Thin  Work. 
—The  hardening  of  files  is  a  good  example  of  the 
treatment  of  long  thin  work;  and  the  method  em- 
ployed may  be  used  to  advantage  for  many  other 
pieces. 


TOOL-STEEL   WORK.  187 

The  files  are  heated  in  a  pot  of  red-hot  lead.  They 
are  placed  in  this  pot  on  end,  and  when  properly 
heated  are  plunged  end  first  (being  held  in  a  verti- 
cal position)  into  a  vat  of  brine. 

The  files  nearly  always  warp  somewhat  when 
hardened,  and  when  the  warping  is  slight  are 
straightened  as  follows:  Across  the  top  of  the 
brine  vat  are  fastened  two  wooden  strips  about  two 
inches  apart,  joined  by  two  iron  pins  about  six 
inches  from  each  other.  The  hardener  draws  his 
file  from  the  brine  before  it  is  entirely  cold.  The 
metal  has  just  heat  enough  left  to  cause  the  water 
on  the  surface  of  the  steel  to  disappear  almost  in- 
stantly. The  file  is  then  placed  between  the  pins, 
under  one  and  over  the  other,  with  the  concave 
side  up,  as  shown  in  Fig.  232,  which  shows  one  of 


FIG.  232. 

the  side  strips  removed.  The  hardener  then  bears 
down  on  the  end  of  the  file,  springing  it  straight, 
and  at  the  same  time  pours  some  of  the  cold  brine 
on  top  of  the  concave  part.  This  will  generally 
straighten  out  the  file  and  leave  it  perfectly  true. 
Of  course  if  the  files  are  too  badly  warped  there  is 
nothing  to  do  but  reheat,  straighten,  and  harden 
again. 

Bad   Shape    to   Harden. — There   are   some  shapes 


i88 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


which  are  very  difficult  to  harden.    Fig.  233  shows  a 

sectional  view  of  a  steel  bear- 
ing which  should  be  hardened 
very  hard.  The  body  of  the 
bearing  is  thick  and  contains 
proportionately  a  large  vol- 


FIG.  233. 


ume  of  metal,  while  the  flange  is  very  thin  and  light 
and  joins  the  body  in  a  sharp  angle,  making  a  bad 
shape  to  harden.  The  thin  flange  cools  almost 
instantly  as  it  strikes  the  water,  while  the  body 
takes  some  seconds  to  cool  and  by  that  time  the 
flange  is  set.  As  the  body  contracts  in  cooling  it 
pulls  away  from  the  flange,  cracking  in  the  sharp 
corner. 

Of  course  shapes  like  this  will  not  always  crack, 
but  there  is  always  a  strong  tendency  to  do  so  when 
a  thin  body  of  metal  joins  a  thick  one  with  a  sharp 
corner  between  the  two  parts.  This  danger  can  be 
lessened  by  leaving  a  fillet  in  the  corner  as  shown  in 
the  side  sketch.  This  equalizes  the  strain  some- 
what by  not  leaving  a  distinct  line  between  the 
thick  and  thin  parts. 

Milling-cutter  teeth  when  made  with  a  sharp 
angle  at  the  bottom  are  liable  to  crack  in  harden- 
ing. If  left  with  a  slight  fillet  between  them  they 
very  rarely  crack  if  properly  heated. 

Tempering  Springs — Blazing  Off. — Spring  temper- 
ing done  in  oil  is  a  good  example  of  work  where 
the  temperature  of  the  reheating  is  determined 
independently  of  the  ' '  temper  colors." 

This  method  of  tempering  springs  is  known  as 
"blazing,"  and  gives  about  as  reliable  results  as 


TOOL- STEEL   WORK.  189 

any,  on  a  small  scale,  for  ordinary  work.  The 
spring  is  heated  to  a  hardening  heat  and  cooled  in 
oil.  To  draw  the  temper,  the  spring,  still  wet  with 
the  oil,  is  reheated  (ordinarily  in  the  blaze  of  the 
forge)  until  the  oil  blazes  up  and  then  plunged  for 
an  instant  into  the  oil-bath  and  again  reheated  until 
it  blazes.  This  is  continued  until  the  oil  blazes 
uniformly  over  the  entire  spring  at  the  same  time. 

Springs  are  generally  not  uniform  in  thickness, 
and  the  thin  parts  heat  more  quickly  than  the 
thicker.  This  momentary  plunge  into  the  oil  cools 
the  thin  parts  somewhat  and  affects  very  little  the 
thicker  parts.  As  the  reheating  is  continued  all 
parts  of  the  spring  are  thus  brought  to  the  same 
temperature  at  the  same  time.  If  the  reheating 
were  continued  without  this  partial  cooling,  by  the 
time  the  thicker  parts  were  hot  enough  to  have  the 
proper  temper,  the  thinner  parts  would  be  heated 
to  too  high  a  temperature  and  have  no  temper  left. 

Animal  oil,  and  not  mineral  oil,  should  be  used 
for  this  kind  of  work,  as  the  mineral  oil  is  too  uncer- 
tain in  its  composition  and  will  sometimes  blaze  at 
one  temperature,  sometimes  at  another,  while  the 
animal  oil  is  fairly  uniform  in  its  composition  and 
generally  blazes  at  about  the  same  temperature. 
Lard-  or  fish-oil  is  a  good  material  for  this  purpose. 

Another  way  of  tempering  springs  (which  is 
rather  risky  but  which  is  sometimes  used)  is  to 
harden  the  spring  in  the  ordinary  way  in  water. 
It  is  then  reheated  over  the  fire,  and  to  test  the 
temperature  from  time  to  time  a  dry,  pine  splinter 
is  scraped  over  the  edge  of  the  spring.  As  soon  as 


190  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the  minute  shavings  thus  made  will  catch  fire  the 
right  temperature  is  supposed  to  be  reached,  the 
burning  of  the  wood  in  this  case  taking  the  place 
of  the  burning  oil  mentioned  above. 

Sometimes  when  no  pine  splinters  are  convenient 
even  the  hammer-handle  is  made  to  serve  the  pur- 
pose. 

These  last  are  not  processes  to  be  recommended, 
but  are  given  as  illustrations  of  how  the  tempera- 
ture of  reheating  for  drawing  the  temper  may  be 
determined  in  a  variety  of  ways,  viz.,  by  the  blue 
color  of  the  scale ;  by  the  blazing  of  the  oil ;  by  the 
burning  of  the  wood. 

Hardening  to  Leave  Soft  Center. — Another  method 
of  tempering  used  for  milling-cutters  and  taps 
which  has  proved  very  satisfactory  is  as  follows : 

The  tools  are  heated  in  the  ordinary  way  and  are 
cooled  in  water,  but  are  not  left  in  the  water  long 
enough  to  become  completely  cold,  being  drawn 
out  of  the  water  as  soon  as  the  "singing"  stops. 
(When  red-hot  metal  strikes  water  the  water  in 
immediate  contact  with  the  metal  starts  to  boil, 
and  this  boiling  produces  a  decided  humming 'or 
singing  noise  and  a  throbbing  sensation  easily  felt 
through  the  tongs.  This  ceases  when  the  outside 
of  the  metal  cools  to  about  the  temperature  of 
boiling  water.) 

When  the  tool  is  drawn  out  of  the  water  it  is  in- 
stantly plunged  into  lard-oil  and  left  there  for  a 
very  short  time  (depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
tool)  and  then  withdrawn.  It  is  then  held  in  the 
flame  of  the  forge  or  near  the  fire  until  the  oil  on 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  19 1 

the  outside  just  commences  to  smoke,  when  it  is 
again  plunged  for  an  instant  into  the  oil  and  again 
reheated,  this  being  continued  until  the  oil  smokes 
evenly  all  over  the  tool,  when  the  tempering  is 
complete  and  the  tool  may  be  cooled  off. 

The  object  of  the  method  is  this:  The  first  cool- 
ing in  water  hardens  the  outside  and  cutting  edges 
of  the  tool.  The  tool  is  then  taken  from  the  water 
and  plunged  into  oil  while  the  inside  is  still  com- 
paratively hot.  As  the  oil  conducts  the  heat  more 
slowly  than  water,  the  cooling  of  the  tool  is  con- 
tinued in  the  oil,  thus  leaving  the  center  rather 
tougher  than  if  hardened  in  water.  But  even  here 
the  metal  is  not  completely  cooled,  but  taken  from 
the  oil-bath  while  there  is  still  some  heat  left  in  the 
center.  This  heat  in  the  center  helps  to  draw  the 
temper  of  the  outside,  and  consequently  the  tool 
is  reheated  much  quicker  than  if  entirely  cooled. 
The  smoking  oil  serves  to  indicate  the  proper  tem- 
perature to  which  the  reheating  should  be  carried. 

With  a  little  practice  the  tool  can  be  withdrawn 
from  the  oil-bath  while  there  is  still  heat  enough 
left  in  the  central  part  to  draw  the  temper.  In 
this  way  no  reheating  in  the  fire  is  necessary,  the 
tool  being  simply  taken  from  the  oil,  allowed  to 
reheat  itself  until  the  oil  commences  to  smoke, 
and  then  plunged  in  water  to  prevent  further  re- 
heating. 

Annealing. — It  may  be  said  that  annealing  is  the 
reverse  of  hardening.  To  go  back  to  first  princi- 
ples :  If  a  piece  of  steel  be  heated  to  a  proper  ' '  hard- 
ening heat"  and  cooled  very  suddenly,  the  steel  is 


192  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

left  very  hard.  The  faster  it  is  cooled  the  harder 
the  steel.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  steel  be  cooled 
from  this  hardening  heat  very  slowly  it  is  left  soft, 
and  the  slower  it  is  cooled  the  softer  it  becomes. 
This  softening  process  of  heating  and  cooling  slowly 
is  known  as  annealing,  and  steel  so  treated  is  called 
annealed  steel. 

Water  Annealing.— The  quickest  way  of  anneal- 
ing is  what  is  known  as  "water  annealing."  In 
doing  this  the  steel  is  heated  until  it  just  shows 
very  dull  red  when  held  in  a  dark  place,  and  is  then 
cooled  in  water.  This  method  leaves  the  steel  soft 
enough  to  be  worked,  but  not  as  soft  as  it  would  be 
if  heated  to  a  hardening  heat  and  cooled  very 
slowly. 

A  bar  of  steel  if  hammered  until  cooled  below  a 
red  heat  is  rather  hard,  and  can  be  made  somewhat 
softer  and  put  in  a  better  condition  to  work  by 
water  annealing. 

Water  annealing  is  quite  often  used  for  work  of 
the  following  nature:  A  drill  or  tap  is  sometimes 
broken  off  in  a  piece  of  work  and  must  be  softened 
before  it  can  be  removed.  Such  work  is  generally 
wanted  in  a  hurry,  and  water  annealing  is  resorted 
to  to  soften  the  broken  piece. 

Soapy  water  gives  good  results  for  water  anneal- 
ing. 

Annealing  at  the  Forge. — A  common  way  of  an- 
nealing is  to  bury  the  heated  steel  in  the  cinders 
on  the  forge  and  keep  it  there  until  it  is  cold.  This 
method  is  very  satisfactory  for  ordinary  work.  Still 
another  way,  and  about  the  most  satisfactory,  is 


TOOL-STEEL    WORK.  1 93 

to  bury  the  metal  in  a  box  filled  with  common  lime. 
The  steel  cools  slowly  in  this,  and  is  left  in  very 
good  shape  for  working. 

The  object  in  each  case  is  to  cool  the  metal  as 
slowly  as  possible  by  keeping  the  air  from  it,  as  heat 
is  lost  to  the  air  very  rapidly.  When  the  steel  is 
buried  in  some  material  which  does  not  conduct 
heat  readily,  it  of  course  cools  very  slowly  and  is 
left  that  much  softer. 

Box  Annealing. — Sometimes  a  piece  of  polished 
steel  must  be  annealed  without  raising  any  scale  on 
the  surface,  such  as  would  be  left  by  any  of  the 
methods  described  before.  To  do  this  the  air  must 
be  kept  from  the  metal,  both  while  it  is  being 
heated  and  while  cooling.  The  steel  can  be  buried 
in  an  iron  box,  filled  with  ground  bone,  burned 
leather,  or  other  carbonaceous  materials  and  sealed 
air-tight.  The  box  may  be  slowly  heated  to  the 
right  temperature  and  allowed  to  cool  very  slowly, 
the  steel  being  removed  from  the  box  after  it  is 
cold. 

There  is  a  patented  process  for  annealing  polished 
steel  which  is  said  to  leave  the  metal  as  bright  and 
polished  as  it  was  before  annealing.  The  method 
is  about  as  follows:  The  pieces  to  be  annealed  are 
placed  in  a  piece  of  large  pipe  having  a  cap  on  one 
end;  into  this  cap  is  screwed  a  small  gas-pipe 
which  extends  back  through  to  the  outside  of  the 
furnace.  When  the  pieces  are  all  in  the  large  pipe, 
a  second  cap  is  screwed  on  the  open  end.  This 
cap  has  a  small  hole  drilled  in  it.  While  the  large 
pipe  containing  the  steel  is  being  heated  gas  is  run 


194  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

into  it  through  the  small  gas-pipe.  This  gas  fills 
the  pipe  and  escapes  and  burns  at  the  small  hole 
through  the  second  cap. 

Ordinary  illuminating-gas  is  used.  Oxygen  is 
necessary  to  form  scale  on  the  steel,  and  as  the  gas 
(containing  very  little  or  no  oxygen)  which  fills 
the  pipe  drives  out  the  air,  there  is  no  oxygen  left 
to  form  scale  and  discolor  the  steel,  consequently 
the  steel  comes  out  of  the  pipe  as  bright  as  when 
it  went  in.  The  pipe,  of  course,  is  kept  full  of  gas 
until  the  steel  is  cold. 

Mr.  William  Metcalf,  in  his  book  on  Steel,  gives 
as  a  substitute  for  the  above-patented  process 
(known  as  the  Jones  process)  the  following  method 
(this  description  is  taken  verbatim  from  his  book) : 
' '  Let  a  pipe  be  made  like  a  Jones  pipe  without  a 
hole  in  the  cap  or  a  gas-pipe  in  the  end.  To  charge 
it  first  throw  a  handful  of  resin  into  the  bottom  of 
the  pipe  and  screw  on  the  cap.  The  cap  is  a  loose 
fit.  Now  roll  the  whole  into  the  furnace ;  the  resin 
will  be  volatilized  at  once,  fill  the  pipe  with  carbon 
or  hydrocarbon  gases,  and  with  the  air  long  before 
the  steel  is  hot  enough  to  be  attacked. 

The  gas  will  cause  an  outward  pressure,  and  may 
be  seen  burning  as  it  leaks  through  the  joint  at  the 
cap.  This  prevents  air  from  coming  in  contact 
with  the  steel.  This  method  is  as  efficient  as  the 
Jones  plan  as  far  as  perfect  heating  and  easy  man- 
agement are  concerned.  It  reduces  the  scale  on 
the  surfaces  of  the  pieces,  leaving  them  a  dark- 
gray  color  and  covered  with  -fine  carbon  or  soot. 
For  annealing  blocks  it  is  handier  and  cheaper  than 


TOOL-STEEL   WORK.  195 

the  Jones  plan,  but  it  will  not  do  for  polishing  sur- 
faces." 

File  blanks  (the  shaped  pieces  of  stock  ready  to 
have  the  teeth  cut)  are  annealed  by  packing  them 
in  cast-iron  boxes  3^"  or  4"  long,  i"  deep,  and  8" 
or  10"  wide,  with  just  a  little  sprinkling  of  some 
carbonaceous  material  over  the  steel.  The  box  is 
closed  by  an  iron  cover  which  fits  inside  the  box 
and  comes  about  an  inch  and  a  half  below  the  top 
of  the  sides. 

The  box  is  made  practically  air-tight  by  packing 
fire-clay  (the  damp  dust  or  grit  which  collects  be- 
neath the  grindstones  is  sometimes  used)  around 
the  inside  the  box  on  top  of  the  cover. 

These  boxes  are  placed  in  a  furnace  and  heated 
for  about  forty-eight  hours  and  then  drawn  out 
and  covered  with  sheet-iron  covers  lined  with 
asbestos,  where  they  cool  very  slowly.  A  box  put 
under  a  cover  Saturday  is  expected  to  be  used 
Tuesday;  and  the  steel  is  sometimes  so  hot  even 
then  that  it  can  hardly  be  touched.  This  method 
leaves  the  steel  very  soft  and  easy  to  work. 

Steel  is  sometimes  annealed  by  bringing  it  up  to 
a  proper  heat  in  a  furnace  and  then  allowing  the 
steel  and  the  furnace  to  cool  off  together. 

Annealing  is  done  in  pits  by  building  up  a  fire- 
brick pit,  filling  it  with  steel,  either  in  piles  or 
packed  in  boxes,  leaving  spaces  for  the  burning  gas 
to  circulate  between  the  piles  or  boxes,  covering 
the  whole  over  with  a  fire-brick-lined  cover,  and 
heating  the  pit  up  to  the  proper  temperature  by 
burning  gas  in  it.  This  gas  is  admitted  through 


196  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

openings  in  the  side  of  the  pit  left  for  the  purpose. 
When  the  steel  has  been  heated  evenly  to  the  proper 
temperature,  the  gas  is  turned  off  and  the  pit  and 
its  contents  slowly  cooled.  This  is  the  method 
used  for  annealing  steel  from  which  tin-plate  is 
made. 

The  underlying  principle  is  the  same  in  any  case 
— the  steel  is  first  heated  uniformly  to  a  "  harden- 
ing heat"  and  then  cooled  slowly,  the  slower  the 
better.  Sometimes,  to  prevent  oxidation,  precau- 
tions are  taken  to  keep  the  air  away  from  the  steel 
both  during  heating  and  cooling. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

TOOL  FORGING  AND  TEMPERING. 

IT  is  assumed  that  the  general  method  of  tem- 
pering as  described  before  is  understood,  and  only 
special  directions  will  be  given  in  particular  cases 
in  the  following  pages. 

Forging  Heat. — Any  tool-steel  forging  on  which 
there  is  any  great  amount  of  work  to  be  done 
should  have  the  heavy  forging  and  shaping  done 
at  a  yellow  heat.  At  this  heat  the  metal  works 
easily  and  properly,  and  the  heavy  pounding  re- 
fines the  grain  and  leaves  the  steel  in  proper  condi- 
tion to  receive  a  cutting  edge.  When  a  tool  is 
merely  to  be  smoothed  off  or  finished,  or  forged  to 
a  very  slight  extent,  the  work  should  be  done  at  a 
much  lower  heat,  just  above  the  hardening  tem- 
perature. 

Very  little  hammering  should  be  done  at  any 
heat  below  the  hardening  temperature. 

Cold-chisels. — The  ordinary  cold-chisel  is  so  sim- 
ple in  shape  that  no  detail  directions  are  necessary 
for  forging.  The  stock  should  be  heated  to  a  yel- 
low heat  and  forged  into  shape  and  finished  as 
smooth  as  possible.  If  properly  forged  the  end,  or 
edge,  will  bulge  out,  like  Fig. -2 34.  This  should  be 
nicked  across  with  a  sharp  hot -chisel  (but  not  cut 

197 


198  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

off),  as  shown  at  C,  and  broken  off  after  the  tool 
has  been  hardened.     This  broken   edge   will  then 


FIG.  234. 

show  the  grain  and  indicate  whether  the  steel  has 
been  hardened  at  a  proper  temperature. 

When  hardening,  the  chisel  should  be  heated  red- 
hot  as  far  back  from  the  point  as  the  line  A,  Fig. 
235.  Great  care  must  be  taken  to  heat  slowly 
I — i  enough  to  heat  the  thicker  part  of  the 
chisel  without  overheating  the  point.  If 
the  point  does  become  too  hot,  it  should 
not  be  dipped  in  water  to  cool  off,  but 
allowed  to  cool  in  the  air  to  below  the 
hardening  heat  and  then  reheated  more 
carefully. 

k  When  the  chisel  has  been  properly  heated 
to  the  hardening  heat,  the  end  should  be 
hardened  in  cold  water  baclc  to  the  line  B, 
Fig.  235.  As  soon  as  the  end  is  cold  the 
chisel  should  be  withdrawn  from  the 
water  and  one  side  of  the  end  polished 
off  with  a  piece  of  emery  or  something 
of  that  nature,  as  described  before. 

The  part  of  the  chisel  from  A  to  B  will  be  still 
red-hot,  and  the  heat  from  this  part  will  gradually 


TOOL   FORGING   AND    TEMPERING.  1 99 

reheat  the  point  of  the  tool.  As  the  metal  is  re- 
heated the  polished  surface  will  change  color,  show- 
ing at  first  yellow,  brown,  and  at  last  purple.  As 
soon  as  the  purple,  almost  blue  color  reaches  the 
nick  at  the  end,  the  chisel  should  again  be  cooled, 
this  time  completely.  The  waste  end  may  now  be 
snapped  off  and  the  grain  examined.  To  test  for 
proper  hardness,  try  the  end  of  the  chisel  with  a 
fine  file,  which  should  scratch  it  slightly.  If  the 
grain  is  too  coarse,  the  tool  should  be  rehardened 
at  a  lower  temperature,  while  if  the  metal  is  too 
soft,  it  should  be  rehardened  at  a  higher  tempera- 
ture. 

Cape-chisel. — The   cape-chisel,  illustrated    in  Fig. 
236,  is  used  for  cutting  grooves  and  working  at  the 


bottom  of  narrow  channels.  The  cutting  edge  A 
should  be  wider  than  any  part  of  the  blade  back  to 
B,  which  should  be  somewhat  thinner  in  order  that 
the  blade  may  "clear"  when  working  in  a  slot  the 
width  of  A. 

The  chisel  is  started  by  thinning  down  B  over 
the  horn  of  the  anvil,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  237.  The 
finishing  is  done  with  a  hammer  or  flatter  in  the 
manner  illustrated  at  B.  The  chisel  should  not 
be  worked  flat  on  top  of  the  anvil,  as  shown  at  C, 
as  this  knocks  the  blade  out  of  shape. 


20O 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


The  cape-chisel  is  tempered  the  same  as  a  cold- 
chisel. 


FIG.  237. 

Square-  and  Round -nose  Cape-chisels. — The  chisels 
are  started  in  the  same  way  as  an  ordinary  cape- 
chisel,  the  ends  being  left  somewhat  more  stubby. 

The  end  is  then  finished  round  or  square,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  238,  and  tempered  the  same  as  a 
cold -chisel. 

Round-nose  cape-chisels  are  sometimes  used  to 
center  drills,  and  are  then  called  "centering" 
chisels. 

Lathe-tools  in  General. — The  same  general  forms 
of  lathe-tools  are  followed  in  nearly  all  shops;  but 
in  different  places  the  shapes  are  altered  somewhat 
to  suit  individual  tastes. 


TOOL  FORGING  AND  TEMPERING.  2OI 

Right-  and  Left-hand  Tools, — Such  tools  as  side 
tools,  oVamond  points,  etc.,  are  generally  made  in 
pairs — that  is,  right-  and  left-handed.  If  a  tool  is 
made  with  the  cutting  edge  on  the  left-hand  side 
(as  the  tool  is  looked  at  from  the  top  with  the  shank 


FIG.  238. 

of  the  tool  nearest  the  observer),  it  would  be  called 
a  right-hand  tool.  That  is,  a  tool  which  begins  its 
cut  at  the  right-hand  end  of  the  piece  and  cuts 
towards  the  left  is  known  as  a  right-hand  tool; 
one  commencing  at  the  left-hand  end  and  cutting 
towards  the  right  would  be  known  as  a  left-hand 
tool. 

The  general  shape  of  right-  and  left-hand  tools 
for  the  same  use  is  practically  the  same  excepting 
that  the  cutting  edges  are  on  opposite  sides. 

Round-nose  and  Thread  Tools. — Round-nose  and 
thread  tools  are  practically  alike,  the  difference 
being  in  the  grinding  of  the  end.  The  thread  tool 
is  sometimes  made  a  little  thinner  at  the  point. 

The  round-nose  tool,  Fig.  239,  is  so  simple  in 
shape  that  no  description  of  the  forging  is  neces- 
sary. Care  must  be  taken  to  have  proper  ' '  clear- 
ance." The  cutting  is  all  done  at  or  near  the 


202 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


end,  and  the  sides  must  be  so  shaped  that  they 
"clear"  the  upper  edge  of  the  end.  In  other 
words,  the  upper  edge  of  the  shaped  end  must  be 


FIG.  239. 

wider  at  every  point  than  the  lower  edge,  as  shown 
by  the  section. 

For  hardening,  the  tool  should  be  heated  about 
as  far  as  the  line  A,  Fig.  240,  and  cooled  up  to  the 


FIG.  240. 

line  B.     Temper  color  of  scale  should  be  light  yel- 
low. 

Cutting-off  Tools.  —  Cutting-off  tools  are  forged 
with  the  blade  either  on  one  side  or  in  the  center  of 
the  stock.  The  easier  way  to  make  them  is  to  forge 


TOOL   FORGING  AND  TEMPERING. 


203 


the  blade  with  one  side  flush  with  the  side  of  the 
tool.     A  tool  forged  this  way  is  shown  in  Fig.  241. 


^                     ' 

1 

/— 

I 

\l 
] 

x         1 

i 

\     /  ! 

< 

*              ^i  •^ 

FIG.  241. 

The  cutting  edge  is  the  extreme  tip  of  the  blade, 
and  the  cutting  is  done  by  forcing  the  tool  straight 
into  the  work,  the  edge  cutting  a  narrow  groove. 
The  only  part  of  the  tool  which  should  touch  the 
work  is  the  extreme  end,  or  cutting  edge;  there- 
fore the  th'ckest  part  of  the  blade  must  be  the  cut- 
ting edge,  the  sides  gradually  tapering  back  in  all 
directions  and  becoming  thinner,  as  shown  in  the 
drawing,  A  being  wider  than  B. 

The  cutting  edge  should  be  slightly  above  the 
level  of  the  top  of  the  tool,  or,  in  other  words,  the 
blade  should  slant  slightly  upwards. 

The  clearance  angle  at  the  end  of  the  tool  is 
about  right  for  lathe-tools ;  but  for  plainer  tools  the 
end  should  be  made  more  nearly  square,  about  as 
shown  by  the  line  X — X. 

For  hardening,  the  heat  should  extend  to  about 
the  line  C — C,  and  the  end  should  be  cooled  to 
about  the  line  D — D.  Temper  color  should  be  light 
yellow. 

The  tool  may  be  forged  by  starting  with  a  fuller 
cut,  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  242.  The  blade  is  roughly 


204 


POROK-PRACTICT:. 


forged  into  shape  with  a  sledge,  or,  on  light  stock, 
a  hand-hammer,  working  over  the  edge  of  the  anvil 
to  form  the  shoulder  in  the  manner  shown  at  B. 
This  leaves  the  end  bulged  out  and  in  rough  shape, 


FIG  242. 

similar  to  C.  The  end  should  be  trimmed  off  with 
a  sharp  hot-chisel  along  the  dotted  line. 

The  finishing  may  be  done  over  the  corner  of  the 
anvil,  using  a  hand-hammer  or  flatter,  in  the  same 
way  as  when  starting  the  tool;  or  a  set -hammer 
may  be  used,  as  shown  at  D. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  have  proper  clearance  on 
all  sides  of  the  blade.  It  is  a  good  plan  to  upset 
the  end  of  the  blade  slightly  by  striking  a  few  light 
blows  the  last  thing  on  the  end  at  the  cutting 
edge,  then  adding  a  little  clearance. 


TOOL    FORGING   AND    TEMPERING. 


205 


When  a  tool  is  wanted  with  the  blade  forged  in 
the  center  of  the  shank,  the  two  shoulders  are 
formed  by  using  a  set-hammer  and  working  at  the 
edge  of  the  anvil  face,  letting  the  corner  of  the 
anvil  shape  one  shoulder  while  the  set-hammer  is 
forming  the  other.  This  process  has  been  de- 
scribed before  under  the  general  method  of  form- 
ing double  shoulders. 

Bent  Cutting-off  Tool. — The  bent  cutting-off  tool, 


FIG.  243. 

Fig.  243,  is  made  and  tempered  exactly  the  same 
as  the  straight  tool,  excepting  that  the  blade  is 
bent  backward  toward  the  shank  through  an  angle 
of  about  45  degrees. 


\ 


FIG.  244. 

Boring  Tool. — The  boring  tool,  illustrated  in  Fig. 
244,  needs  no  particular  description.  The  length 
of  the  thin  shank  depends  upon  the  depth  of  the 


2O6 


PORGE-PRACTICE. 


hole  the  tool  is  to  be  used  in,  but,  as  a  general 
rule,  should  not  be  made  any  longer  than  necessary. 

This  thin  shank  is  started  with  a  fuller  cut  and 
drawn  out  in  much  the  same  way  as  the  cutting-off 
tool  was  started. 

The  cutting  edge  is  at  the  end  of  the  small,  bent 
nose.  The  only  part  of  the  tool  required  tempered 
is  the  bent  nose,  or  end,  which  should  be  given  the 
same  temper  color  as  the  other  lathe-tools — light 
yellow. 

Internal  Thread  Tool. — This  tool,  used  for  cut- 
ting screw  threads  on  the  inside  of  a  hole,  is  forged 
to  the  same  shape  as  the  boring  tool  described 
•above,  the  end  being  afterward  ground  somewhat 
differently. 

Diamond-points. — These  tools  are  made  right  and 
left. 


FIG    245. 

There  are  several  good  methods  of  making  these 
tools;  but  the  one  given  below  is  about  as  quick 
and  easy  as  any,  and  requires  the  use  of  no  tools 
excepting  the  hand-hammer  and  sledge. 

The  diamond-point  is  started  as  shown  at  A,  Fig. 
246,  by  holding  the  stock  at  an  angle  of  about  45 
degrees  over  the  outside  edge  of  the  anvil.  It  is 
first  slightly  nicked  by  being  driven  down  with  a 


TOOL   FORGING   AND   TEMPERING. 


207 


sledge  against  the  corner,  and  the  bent  end  down 
to  the  dotted  position  with  a  few  blows,  as  indi- 
cated by  the  arrow. 


FIG.  246. 

This  end  is  further  bent  by  holding  and  striking 
as  illustrated  at  B.  The  diamond  shape  is  given 
to  the  end  by  swinging  the  tool  back  and  forth  and 


208 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


striking  as  shown  at  C,  which  gives  a  side  and  end 
view  of  tool  in  position  on  the  anvil. 

The  tool  is  finished  by  trimming  the  end  with 
a  sharp  hot-chisel  and  so  bending  the  end  as  to 
throw  the  top  of  the  nose  slightly  to  one  side,  giv- 
ing the  necessary  side  '  'rake"  as  shown  in  Fig.  245. 

When  hardening,  the  end  should  be  dipped  as 
shown  at  D  and  the  temper  drawn  to  show  light- 
yellow  scale. 

Tools  like  the  above  made  of  stock  as  large  as 
£"  Xi"  may  be  made  using  the  hand-hammer  alone. 


FIG.  247. 

Side  Tools. — Side  tools,  or  side-finishing  tools,  as 
they  are  also  called,  are  generally  made  about  the 
shape  shown  in  Fig.  247.  These  tools  are  made 
right  and  left  and  are  also  made  bent.  The  bent 


TOOL   FORGING   AND    TEMPERING.  2OQ 

side  tools  leave  the  ends  forged  the  same;  but  the 
blade  is  afterward  bent  toward  the  shank,  cutting 
edge  out,  at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees. 

The  side  tool  may  be  started  by  making  a  fuller 
cut  as  shown  at  A,  Fig.  247,  near  the  end  of  the 
stock. 

The  part  of  the  stock  marked  x  is  then  drawn 
out  by  using  a  fuller  turned  in  the  opposite  direc- 
tion, working  the  stock  down  into  the  shape  shown 
at  B.  The  blade  is  smoothed  up  with  a  set-ham- 
mer and  trimmed  with  a  hot-chisel  along  the  dotted 
lines  on  C.  The  curved  end  of  the  blade  is  smoothed 
up  and  finished  with  a  few  blows  of  the  hand-ham- 
mer. 

The  tool  is  finished  by  giving  the  proper  ' '  offset ' ' 
to  the  top  edge  of  the  blade.  This  is  done  by  plac- 
ing the  tool,  flat-side  down,  with  the  blade  ex- 
tending over,  and  the  end  of  the  blade  next  the 
shank  about  one-eighth  of  an  inch  beyond,  the 
outside  edge  of  the  anvil.  A  set-hammer  is  placed 
on  the  blade  close  up  to  the  shoulder  and  slightly 
tipped,  so  that  the  face  of  the  hammer  touches  the 
thin  edge  of  the  blade  only,  as  illustrated  at  D. 
One  or  two  light  blows  with  the  sledge  will  give 
the  necessary  offset,  and  after  straightening  the 
blade  the  tool  is  ready  for  tempering. 

It  is  very  important  on  these  tools,  as  well  as  on 
all  others,  to  have  the  cutting  edge  as  smooth  and 
true  as  possible ;  it  is,  therefore,  best,  the  very  last 
thing,  to  smooth  up  this  part  of  a  tool,  using  the 
hand-  or  set-hammer.  Above  all  things,  the  cut- 
ting edge  must  not  be  rounded  off,  as  this  necessi- 


2IO  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

tates  grinding   down  the   edge  until   the   rounded 
part  has  been  completely  ground  off. 

While  the  side  tool  is  being  heated  for  temper- 
ing, it  should  be  placed  in  the  fire  with  the  cutting 
edge  up.  It  is  more  easy  to  avoid  overheating  of 
the  edge  in  this  way. 

The  blade  is  hardened  by  dipping  in  water  as 
shown  at  E,  only  a  small  part  of  back,  A,  of  the 
blade  extending  above  the  water  and  remaining 
red-hot.  The  tool  is  taken  from  the  water,  quickly 
polished  on  the  flat  side,  and  the  temper  drawn  to 
show  a  very  light  yellow.  The  same  color  should 
show  the  entire  length  of  the  cutting  edge.  If  the 
color  shows  darker  at  one  end,  it  indicates  that 
that  end  of  the  blade  was  not  cooled  enough,  and 
the  tool  should  be  rehardened,  this  time  tipping 
the  tool  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  that  end  of  the 
blade  which  was  before  too  soft  deeper  in  the  water. 
Centering  Tool. — The  centering  tool,  Fig.  248, 
used  for  starting  holes  on  face-plate  and  chuck 

work,     is    started    in 

(I       /I  J  much  the    same  way 

as    the    boring    tool. 
The  end  is   flattened 
out  thin  and  trimmed 
into  shape  with  a  hot- 
chisel.       The      right- 
hand  side  of  the  end  should  be  cut  from  the  top  side 
and  the  left-hand  from  the  other,  leaving  the  end 
the  same  shape  as  a  flat  drill. 

Tempered  the  same  as  other  lathe-tools. 
Finishing  Tool.— This  tool,  Fig.  249,  is  started  by 


TOOL    FORGING    AND    TEMPERING. 


21  I 


bending  the  end  of  the  stock  down  over  the  edge  of 

the    anvil  in  the   same  way      . 

as  when  starting  the  diamond-      II — Li. 
point. 

The  end  is  flattened  and 
widened  by  working  with  a 
hand-  or  set-hammer,  as  FlG-  249- 

shown  at  A,  Fig.  250.  This  leaves  the  end  bent 
out  too  nearly  straight;  but,  after  being  shaped,  it 
is  bent  into  the  proper  angle,  in  the  manner  illus- 


FIG.  250. 

trated  at  B.  The  blade  will  then  probably  be  bent 
somewhat  like  C,  but  a  few  blows  with  a  hammer,  at 
the  point  and  in  the  direction  indicated  by  the 
arrow,  will  straighten  this  out,  leaving  it  like  D. 
After  trimming  and  smoothing,  the  tool  is  ready 


212  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

for  tempering.  The  blade  should  be  tempered  to 
just  show  the  very  lightest  yellow  at  cutting  edge. 

When  a  tool  of  this  kind  is  to  be  used  on  a  planer, 
the  front  end  should  make  more  nearly  a  right  angle 
with  the  bottom;  or,  in  other  words,  there  should 
be  less  front  "rake"  or  "clearance." 

Flat  Drills.— The  flat  drill,    Fig.    2=51,   needs  no 


FIG.  251 

description,  as  the  forging  and  shaping  are  very 
simple.  The  end  should  be  trimmed  the  same  as 
the  centering  tool.  The  size  of  the  tool  is  deter- 
mined by  the  dimension  A,  this  being  the  same  size 
as  the  hole  the  drill  is  intended  to  make;  thus,  if 
this  dimension  were  i  " ,  the  drill  would  be  known 
as  an  inch  drill. 

The  temper  is  drawn  to  show  a  dark-yellow  scale. 

Hammers. — As  a  general  rule,  when  making  ham- 
mers of  all  kinds  by  hand  the  eye  is  made  first.  A 
bar  of  steel  of  the  proper  size  and  convenient  length 
for  handling  is  used,  and  the  hammer  forged  on 
the  end,  as  much  forging  and  shaping  as  possible 
being  done  before  cutting  the  hammer  from  the 
bar. 

The  hole  for  the  eye  is  punched  in  the  usual  way 
at  the  proper  distance  from  the  end  of  the  bar, 
using  a  punch  having  a  handle  (Fig.  70). 

The  nose  of  the  punch  is  slightly  smaller  but  has 
the  same  shape  as  the  eye  is  to  finish.  Great  care 


TOOL  FORGING  AND   TEMPERING.  213 

must  be  taken  to  have  the  hole  true  and  straight. 
It  is  very  difficult  and  sometimes  impossible  to 
straighten  up  a  crooked  hole. 

After  punching  the  eye,  the  sides  of  the  stock 
are  generally  bulged  out,  and  to  prevent  knock- 
ing the  eye  out  of  shape  while  forging  down  this 
bulge  a  drift-pin,  Fig.  252,  is  used.  This  is  made 


of  tool-steel  and  tapers  from  near  the  center  to- 
ward each  end,  one  end  being  somewhat  smaller 
than  the  other.  The  center  of  the  pin  is  the  same 
shape  and  size  as  the  eye  is  to  be  in  the  hammer. 

When  the  bar  has  been  heated  the  drift-pin  is 
driven  tightly  into  the  hole  and  the  bulge  forged 
down  in  the  same  way  (B,  Fig.  254)  as  a  solid  bar 
would  be  treated.  When  the  drift-pin  becomes 
heated  it  must  be  driven  out  and  cooled,  and  under 
no  circumstances  should  the  bar  be  heated  with 
the  pin  in  the  hole.  The  pin  should  always  be 
used  when  there  is  danger  of  knocking  the  eye  out 
of  shape. 

The  steel  used  for  hammers,  and  "battering 
tools ' '  in  general,  should  be  of  a  lower  temper  (con- 
tain less  carbon)  than  that  used  for  lathe-tools. 

The  eye  of  a  hammer  should  not  be  of  uniform 
size  throughout,  but  should  be  larger  at  the  ends 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


and  taper  slightly  toward  the  center,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  253,  which  shows  a  section  of  a  hammer  cut 
through  the  center  of  the  eye. 
When  the  eye  is  made  in  this 
way  (slightly  contracted  at 
the  middle),  the  hammer- 
handle  may  be  driven  in 


FIG.  253. 


tightly  from  one  end ;  then  by  driving  one  or  more 
wedges  in  the  end  of  the  handle  it  is  held  firmly 
in  place  and  there  is  no  chance  for  the  head  to 
work  up  or  down. 

Cross-pene,   Blacksmith's  or   Riveting   Hammer. — A 
hammer  of  this  kind  is  shown  at  C,  Fig.  6. 


FIG.  254. 

The  different  steps  in  the  process  of  forging  are 
illustrated  in  Fig.  254.  First  the  eye  is  punched 
as  shown  at  A.  The  pene  is  then  drawn  out  and 


TOOL   FORGING    AND    TEMPERING.  215 

shaped  and  a  cut  started  at  the  point  where  the 
end  of  the  hammer  will  come  (C),  the  drift-pin 
being  used,  as  shown  at  B,  while  forging  the  metal 
around  the  eye. 

The  other  end  of  the  hammer  is  then  worked  up 
into  shape,  using  a  set-hammer  as  indicated  at  D. 

When  the  hammer  is  as  nearly  finished  as  may  be 
while  still  on  the  bar,  it  is  cut  off  with  a  hot-chisel, 
leaving  the  end  as  nearly  square  and  true  as  pos- 
sible. 

After  squaring  up  and  truing  the  face  the  ham- 
mer is  tempered. 

For  tempering,  the  whole  hammer  is  heated  in  a 
slow  fire  to  an  even  hardening  heat;  while  harden- 
ing, the  tongs  should  grasp  the  side  of  the  hammer, 
one  jaw  being  inserted  in  the  eye. 

Both  ends  should  be  tempered,  this  being  done 
by  hardening  first  one  end,  then  the  other. 

The  small  end  is  hardened  first  by  cooling,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  255.  As  soon  as  this  end  has  cooled, 
the  position  is  instantly 
reversed  and  the  large 
end  of  the  hammer  dipped 
in  the  water  and  hard- 
ened. While  the  large 
end  is  cooling,  the  smaller 
one  is  polished  and  the 
temper  color  watched  for. 
When  a  dark-brown  scale 
appears  at  the  end  the  FIG.  255. 

hammer  is  again  reversed,  bringing  the  large  end 
uppermost  and  the  pene  in  the  water.  The  face 


2l6  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

end  is  polished  and  tempered  in  the  same  way  as 
the  small  end.  If  the  large  end  is  properly  hard- 
ened before  the  temper  color  appears  on  the  small 
end,  the  hammer  may  be  taken  completely  out  of 
the  water  and  the  large  end  also  polished,  the 
colors  being  watched  for  on  both  ends  at  once.  As 
soon  as  one  end  shows  the  proper  color  it  is  promptly 
dipped  in  water,  the  other  end  following  as  soon  as 
the  color  appears  there. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  eye  be  cooled 
while  still  red-hot. 

For  some  special  work  hammer-faces  must  be 
very  hard;  but  for  ordinary  usage  the  temper  as 
given  above  is  very  satisfactory. 

Ball  Pene-hammer. — The  ball  pene-hammer,  Fig. 
5,  is  started  by  punching  the  eye. 

The  hammer  is  roughed  out  with  two  fullers  in 
the  manner  illustrated  at  .4,  Fig.  256. 

The  size  of  stock  used  should  be  such  that  it  will 
easily  round  up  to  form  the  large  end  of  the  hammer. 

After  the  hammer  is  roughed  out  as  shown  at  A, 
the  metal  around  the  eye  is  spread  sidewise,  using 
two  fullers  as  illustrated  at  B,  a  set-hammer  being 
used  for  finishing.  This  leaves  the  forging  like  C. 
The  next  step  is  to  round  and  shape  the  ball,  which 
is  forged  as  nearly  as  possible  to  the  finished  shape. 

After  doing  this  a  cut  is  made  in  the  bar  where 
the  face  of  the  hammer  will  come,  and  the  large  end 
rounded  up,  leaving  the  work  like  D. 

The  necked  parts  of  the  hammer  each  side  of 
the  eye  are  smoothed  and  finished  with  fullers  of 
the  proper  size.  Some  hammers  are  made  with. 


TOOL   FORGING   AND    TEMPERING.  21  7 

these  necks  round  in  section,  but  the  commoner 
shape  is  octagonal. 

After  smoothing  off,  the  hammer  is  cut  from  the 
bar  and  the  face  forged  true.  Both  ends  are  ground 
true  and  tempered.  This  hammer  should  be  tern- 


FIG.  256. 

pered  in  the  same  way  as  described  above  for  tem- 
pering the  riveting-hammer. 

Ball  pene-hammers  may  be  made  with  the  steam- 
hammer  in  practically  the  same  way  as  described, 
only  substituting  round  bars  of  steel  for  use  in 
place  of  fullers. 

Sledges. — Sledges  are  made  and  tempered  in  the 
same  general  way  as  riveting -hammers.  Sledges 
may  be  forged  and  finished  almost  entirely  under 
the  steam-hammer. 


2  1 8  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Blacksmith's  Cold-chisel.  —  This  tool  (Fig.  2)  is 
forged  in  practically  the  same  way  as  the  cross-pene 
hammer  described  before.  The  end,  of  course,  is 
drawn  out  longer  and  thinner,  the  thin  edge  com- 
ing parallel  with  the  eye  instead  of  at  right  angles 
to  it. 

The  cutting  edge  only  of  the  chisel  is  tempered. 
The  temper  should  be  drawn  to  show  a  bluish 
scale  just  tinged  with  a  little  purple.  Under  no 
circumstances  should  the  head  of  the  chisel  be 
hardened,  as  this  would  cause  the  end  to  chip 
when  in  use  and  might  cause  a  serious  accident. 

The  tool  shown  in  Fig.  192  may  be  used  to  ad- 
vantage when  making  hot-  or  cold-chisels  with  the 
steam-hammer.  By  using  this  tool,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  193,  the  blade  of  the  chisel  may  be  quickly 
drawn  out  and  finished. 

Hot-chisel.  —  After  forming  the  eye  of  the  hot- 
chisel  (Fig.  2),  the  blade  is  started  by  making  the 

two  fuller  cuts,  as  il- 
lustrated in  Fig.  257. 
-^  The  end  is  drawn 
^-'x  down  as  indicated  by 
the  dotted  lines.  The 
head  is  shaped  and 

the  chisel  cut  from  the  bar  in  the  same  way  that 
the  riveting-hammer  was  treated. 

This  chisel  should  have  its  cutting  edge  tem- 
pered the  same  as  that  of  the  cold-chisel. 

Hardies. — Hardies  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  2 
should  be  started  by  drawing  out  the  stem.  This 
stem  is  drawn  down  to  the  right  size  to  fit  the 


TOOL   FORGING   AND    TEMPERING.  2tQ 

hardy-hole  in  the  anvil  and  the  piece  cut  from  the 
bar.  This  is  heated,  the  stem  placed  in  the  hole 
in  the  anvil,  and  the  piece  driven  down  into  the 
hole  and  against  the  face  of  the  anvil,  thus  forming 
a  good  shoulder  between  the  stem  and  the  head  of 
the  hardy. 

After  forming  the  shoulder,  the  blade  is  worked 
out,  starting  by  using  two  fullers  in  the  same  way 
as  when  starting  the  hot-chisel  blade. 

The  cutting  edge  should  be  given  the  same  tem- 
per as  a  cold-chisel. 

Blacksmith's  Punches.  —  Punches  shaped  similar 
to  Fig.  70  are  started  the  same  manner  as  the  hot- 
chisel,  excepting  that 
the  fuller  cuts  are 
made  on  four  sides,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  258. 
The  end  is  then  drawn 
out  to  the  shape  FIG.  258. 

shown    by  the   dotted 
lines. 

Temper  same  as  cold-chisel. 

Set-hammers  —  Flatters.  —  The  set-hammer,  Fig. 
15,  is  so  simple  that  no  directions  are  necessary  for 
shaping.  The  face  only  should  be  tempered  and 
that  should  show  a  dark-brown  or  purple  color. 

Flatters  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  14  may  be  made 
by  upsetting  the  end  of  a  small  bar,  the  upset  part 
forming  the  wide  face;  or  a  bar  large  enough  to 
form  the  face  may  be  used  and  the  head,  or  shank, 
drawn  down. 

The  eye  should  be  punched  after  the  face  has  been 


220 


FORGE -PRACTICE. 


FIG.  259. 


made.     The  face  should  be  tempered  to  about  a 

blue. 

When  many  are  to  be 
made  a  swage  -  block 
similar  to  Fig.  259 
should  be  used.  Half 
only  of  the  block  is 
shown  in  the  figure,  the 
other  half  being  cut  away 
to  show  the  shape  of  the 

hole  which  is  the  size  of  the  finished  flatter. 

When  using  this  block  the  stock  is  first  cut  to 

the  proper  length,  heated,  placed  in  the  hole,  and 

upset. 

Swages. — Swages  may    also  be  made  in  a  block 

similar  to  the  one  used  for  the  flatter.     The  swage 

should  be  first  upset  in  the   block  and  the  crease 

formed  the  last  thing.     The  crease  may  be  made 

with  a  fuller  or  a  bar  of  round  stock  the  proper 

size. 
Fullers. —  Fullers  are  made  in  the  same  way  as 

swages. 

All  of  these  tools  may  be  upset  and  forged  under 

the  steam-hammer,  using  the  die,  or  swage,  blocks 

as  described   above.      The   swage-blocks  may   be 

made  of  cast  iron. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  WORK. 

Shrinking. — When  iron  is  heated  it  expands,  and 
upon  being  cooled  it  contracts  to  practically  its 
original  size. 

This  property  is  utilized  in  doing  what  is  known 
as  "shrinking." 


FIG.  260. 

A  common  example  of  this  sort  of  work  is  illus- 
trated in  Fig.  260,  showing  a  collar  "shrunk"  on  a 
shaft.  The  collar  and  shaft  are  made  separately. 
The  inside  diameter  of  the  hole  through  the  collar 
is  made  slightly  less  than  the  outside  diameter  of 
the  shaft.  When  the  collar  and  shaft  are  ready 
to  go  together  the  collar  is  heated  red-hot.  The 
high  temperature  causes  the  metal  to  expand  and 
thus  increases  the  diameter  of  the  hole,  making 
it  larger  (if  the  sizes  have  been  properly  propor- 
tioned) than  the  outside  diameter  of  the  shaft. 
The  collar  is  then  taken  from  the  fire,  brushed 
clean  of  all  ashes  and  dirt,  and  slipped  on  the  shaft 

221 


222  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

and  into  the  proper  position,  where  it  is  cooled  as 
quickly  as  possible.  This  cooling  causes  the  collar 
to  contract  and  locks  it  firmly  in  place. 

If  the  collar  be  alowed  to  cool  slowly  it  will  heat 
the  shaft,  which  will  expand  and  stretch  the  collar 
somewhat;  then,  as  both  cool  together  and  con- 
tract, the  collar  will  be  loose  on  the  shaft. 

This  is  the  method  used  for  shrinking  tires  on 
wheels.  The  tire  is  made  just  large  enough  to  slip 
on  the  wheel  when  hot,  but  not  large  enough  to  go 
on  cold.  It  is  then  heated,  put  in  place,  and 
quickly  cooled. 

Couplings  are  frequently  shrunk  on  shafts  in  this 
way. 

Brazing. — Brazing,  it  might  be  said,  is  soldering 
with  brass. 

Briefly  the  process  is  as  follows:  The  surfaces  to 
be  joined  are  cleaned  thoroughly  where  they  are  to 
come  in  contact  with  each  other.  The  pieces  are 
then  fastened  together  in  the  proper  shape  by 
binding  with  wire,  or  holding  with  some  sort 
of  clamp.  The  joint  is  heated,  a  flux  (gener- 
ally borax)  being  added  to  prevent  oxidation  of 
the  surfaces,  and  the  "spelter"  (prepared  brass) 
sprinkled  over  the  joint,  the  heat  being  raised  until 
the  brass  melts  and  flows  into  the  joint,  making  a 
union  between  the  pieces.  Ordinarily  it  requires  a 
bright-red  or  dull-yellow  heat  to  melt  the  brass 
properly. 

Almost  any  metal  that  will  stand  the  heat  can  be 
brazed.  Great  care  must  be  used  when  brazing 
cast  iron  to  have  the  surfaces  in  contact  properly 


MISCELLANEOUS    WORK. 


223 


cleaned  to  start  with,  and  then  properly  protected 
from  the  oxidizing  influences  of  the  air  and  fire 
while  being  heated. 

Brass  wire,  brass  filings,  or  small  strips  of  rolled 
brass  may  be  used  in  place  of  the  spelter.  Brass 
wire  in  particular  is  very  convenient  to  use  in  some 
places,  as  it  can  be  bent  into  shape  and  held  in  place 
easily. 

A  simple  brazed  joint  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  261, 
which  shows  a  flange  (in  this  case  a  large  washer) 
brazed  around  the  end  of  a  pipe.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  use  any  clamps  or  wires  to  hold  the  work 
together,  as  the  joint  may  be  made  tight  enough  to 
hold  the  pieces  in  place.  The  joint  should  be  tight 
enough  in  spots  to  hold  the  pieces  together,  but 
must  be  open  enough  to  allow  the  melted  brass  to 
run  between  the  two  pieces.  Where  the  pipe 
comes  in  contact  with  the  flange  the  outside  should 
be  free  from  scale  and  filed  bright,  the  inside  of 
the  flange  being  treated  in  the  same  way. 


FIG.  261. 


FIG.  262. 


When  the  pieces  have  been  properly  cleaned  and 
forced  together,  a  piece  of  brass  wire  should  be 
bent  around  the  pipe  at  the  joint,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
262,  and  the  work  laid  on  the  fire  with  the  flange 


224  FORGE- PRACTICE. 

down.  The  fire  should  be  a  clean  bright  bed  of 
coals.  As  soon  as  the  work  is  in  the  fire  the  joint 
should  be  sprinkled  with  the  flux;  in  fact,  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  put  on  some  of  the  flux  before  putting 
the  work  in  the  fire.  Ordinary  borax  can  be  used 
as  a  flux,  although  a  mixture  of  about  three  parts 
borax  and  one  part  sal  ammoniac  seems  to  give 
much  better  results. 

The  heat  should  be  gradually  raised  until  the 
brass  melts  and  runs  all  around  and  into  the  joint, 
when  the  piece  should  be  lifted  from  the  fire. 

The  brazing  could  be  done  with  spelter  in  place 
of  the  brass  wire.  If  spelter  were  to  be  used  the 
piece  would  be  laid  on  the  fire  and  the  joint  cov- 
ered with  the  flux  as  before.  As  soon  as  the  flux 
starts  to  melt,  the  spelter  mixed  with  a  large 
amount  of  flux  is  spread  on  the  joint  and  melted 
down  as  the  brass  wire  was  before.  For  placing 
the  spelter  when  brazing  it  is  convenient  to  have  a 
sort  of  a  long-handled  spoon.  This  is  easily  made 
by  taking  a  strip  of  iron  about  \"  X 1"  three  or  four 
feet  long  and  hollowing  one  end  slightly  with  the 
pene  end  of  the  hammer. 

There  are  several  grades  of  spelter  which  melt  at 
different  heats.  Soft  spelter  melts  at  a  lower  heat  than 
hard  spelter,  but  does  not  make  as  strong  a  joint. 

Spelter  is  simply  brass  prepared  for  brazing  in 
small  flakes  and  can  be  bought  ready  for  use.  The 
following  way  has  been  recommended  for  the  prep- 
aration of  spelter:  Soft  brass  is  melted  in  a  ladle 
and  poured  into  a  bucket  filled  with  water  having 
in  it  finely  chopped  straw,  the  water  being  given  a 


MISCELLANEOUS    WORK. 


225 


swirling  motion  before  pouring  in  the  brass.  The 
brass  settles  to  the  bottom  in  small  particles.  Care 
must  be  taken  when  melting  the  brass  not  to  burn 
out  the  zinc.  To  avoid  this,  cover  the  metal  in 
ladle  with  powdered  charcoal  or  coal.  When  the 
zinc  begins  to  burn  it  gives  a  brilliant  flame  and 
dense  white  smoke,  leaving  a  deposit  of  white  oxide 
of  zinc. 

Another  example  of  brazing  is  the  T  shown  in 


FIG.  263. 

Fig.  263.     Here  two  pipes  are  to  be  brazed  to  each 
other  in  the  form  of  an  inverted  T. 

A  clamp  must  be  used  to  hold  the  pieces  in  proper 
position  while  brazing,  as  one  pipe  is  simply  stuck 
on  the  outside  of  the 
other.  A  simple 
clamp  is  shown  in  Fig. 
264  consisting  of  a 
piece  of  flat  iron  hav- 
ing one  hole  near  each 
end  to  receive  the  two 
small  bolts,  as  illus- 
trated. This  strip  lies 


FIG.  264. 


across  the  end  of  the 
pipe  forming  the  short 
stem  of  the  T,  and  the  bent  ends  of  the  bolts  hook 


226  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

into  the  ends  of  the  bottom  pipe.  The  whole  is  held 
together  by  tightening  down  on  the  nuts. 

The  brazing  needs  no  particular  description,  us 
the  spelter  or  wire  is  laid  on  the  joint  and  melted 
into  place  as  before. 

A  piece  of  this  kind  serves  as  a  good  illustration  ot 
the  strength  of  a  brazed  joint.  If  a  well-made 
joint  of  this  kind  be  hammered  apart,  the  short 
limb  will  sometimes  tear  out  or  pull  off  a  section  of 
the  longer  pipe,  showing  the  braze  to  be  almost  as 
strong  as  the  pipe. 

When  using  borax  as  a  flux  the  melted  scale 
should  be  cleaned  (or  scraped)  from  the  work  while 
still  red-hot,  as  the  borax  when  cold  makes  a  hard, 
glassy  scale  which  can  hardly  be  touched  with  a 
file.  The  cleaning  may  be  easily  done  by  plunging 
the  brazed  piece,  while  still  red-hot,  into  water. 
On  small  work  the  cleaning  is  very  thoroughly  done 
if  the  piece,  while  still  red-hot,  is  dipped  into  melted 
cyanide  of  potassium  and  then  instantly  plunged 
into  water.  If  allowed  to  remain  in  the  cyanide 
many  seconds  the  brass  will  be  eaten  off  and  the 
brazing  destroyed. 

It  is  not  always  necessary  when  brazing  wrought 
iron  or  steel  to  have  the  joint  thoroughly  cleaned; 
for  careful  work  the  parts  to  be  brazed  together 
should  be  bright  and  clean,  but  for  rough  work  the 
pieces  are  sometimes  brazed  without  any  preparation 
whatever  other  than  scraping  off  any  loose  dirt  or  scale. 

Pipe-bending.  —  There  is  one  simple  fact  about 
pipe-bending  which,  if  always  carried  in  mind, 
makes  it  comparatively  easy. 


MISCELLANEOUS    WORK. 


227 


Let  the  full  lines  in  Fig.  265  represent  a  cross- 
section  of  a  piece  of  pipe  before  bending.  Now 
suppose  the  pipe  be  heated  and  an  attempt  made 
to  bend  it  without  taking  any  precautions  what- 


FIG.  265. 


FIG.  266 


ever.  The  concave  side  of  the  pipe  will  flatten 
down  against  the  outside  of  the  curve,  leaving  the 
cross-section  something  as  shown  by  the  dotted 
lines;  that  is,  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  pipe  will 
be  forced  together,  while  the  sides  will  be  pushed 
apart.  In  other  words,  the  pipe  collapses. 

If  the  sides  can  be  prevented  from  bulging  out 
while  being  bent  it  will  stop  the  flattening  together 
of  the  top  and  bottom.  A  simple  way  of  doing 
this  is  to  bend  the  pipe  between  two  flat  plates  held 
the  same  distance  apart  as  the  outside  diameter  of 
the  pipe  (Fig.  266).  Pipe  can  sometimes  be  bent 
in  a  vise  in  this  way,  the  jaws  of  the  vise  taking 
the  place  of  the  flat  plates  mentioned  above. 

Large  pipe  may  be  bent  something  in  the  follow- 
ing way:  If  the  pipe  is  long  and  heavy  the  part  to 
be  bent  should  be  heated,  and  then  while  one  end  is 


228 


FORGE-PRACTICE. 


supported,  the  other  end  is  dropped  repeatedly  on 
the  floor.  The  weight  of  the  pipe  will  cause  it  to 
bend  in  the  heated  part.  Fig.  267  illustrates  this, 


FIG.  267. 

the  solid  lines  showing  the  pipe  as  it  is  held  before 
dropping  and  the  dotted  lines  the  shape  it  takes  as 
it  is  dropped. 

As  the  pipe  bends  the  sides,  of  course,  bulge  out, 
and  the  top  and  bottom  tend  to  flatten  together; 
but  this  is  remedied  by  laying  the  pipe  flat  and 
driving  the  bulging  sides  together  with  a  flatter. 

Another  way  of  bending  is  to  put  the  end  of  the 
pipe  in  one  of  the  holes  of  a  heavy  swage-block  (as 
illustrated  in  Fig.  268),  the  bend  then  being  made 


FIG.  268. 

by  pulling  over  the  free  end.  The  same  precau- 
tion must,  of  course,  be  taken  as  when  bending  in 
other  ways. 

The  fact  that  by  preventing  the  sides  of  the  pipe 
from  bulging  it  may  be  made  to  retain  its  proper 


MISCELLANEOUS    WORK. 


shape  is  particularly  valuable  when  several  pieces 
are  to  be  bent  just  alike.  In  this  case  a  jig  is  made 
which  consists  of  two  side  plates,  to  prevent  the 
sides  of  the  pipe  from  bulging,  and  a  block  between 
these  plates  to  give  the  proper  shape  to  the  curve. 
A  piece  of  bent  pipe  which  was  formed  in  this 


-3 


FIG.  269. 

way  is  shown  in  Fig.  269,  together  with  the  jig 
used  for  bending  it. 

The  pipe  was  regular  one-quarter-inch  gas-pipe. 
The  jig  was  made  as  follows:  The  sides  were  made 
of  two  pieces  of  board  about  i|"  thick.  Between 
these  sides  was  a  board,  A,  sawed  to  the  shape  of 
the  inside  curve  of  the  bent  pipe.  This  piece  was 
slightly  thicker  than  the  outside  diameter  of  the 
pipe  (about  VK"  being  added  for  clearance).  The 
inside  face  of  the  sides  and  the  edge  of  the  block  A 
were  protected  from  the  red-hot  pipe  by  a  thin 
sheet  of  iron  tacked  to  them. 

A  bending  lever  was  made  by  bending  a  piece  of 
f'Xi"  stock  into  the  shape  of  the  outside  of  the 
pipe.  This  lever  was  held  in  place  by  a  \"  bolt 
passing  through  the  sides  of  the  jig,  as  shown. 


2JO  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

To  bend  the  pipe  it  was  heated  to  a  yellow  heat, 
put  in  the  jig  as  indicated  by  the  dotted  lines  and 
the  lever  pulled  over,  forcing  the  hot  pipe  to  take 
the  form  of  the  block. 

A  jig  of  this  sort  is  easily  and  cheaply  made  and 
gives  good  service,  although  it  is  necessary  some- 
times to  throw  a  little  water  on  the  sides  to  prevent 
them  from  burning. 

Another  common  way  of  bending  is  to  fill  the 
pipe  with  sand.  One  end  of  the  pipe  to  be  bent  is 
plugged  either  with  a  cap  or  a  wooden  plug  driven 
in  tightly.  The  pipe  is  filled  full  of  sand  and  the 
other  end  closed  up  tight.  The  pipe  may  then  be 
heated  and  bent  into  shape.  It  is  necessary  to  have 
the  pipe  full  of  sand  or  it  will  do  very  little  good. 

For  very  thin  pipe  the  best  thing  is  to  fill  with 
melted  rosin.  This,  of  course,  can  only  be  used 
when  the  tubing  or  pipe  is  very  thin  and  is  bent 
cold,  as  heating  the  pipe  would  cause  the  rosin  to 
run  out. 

Thin  copper  tubing  may  be  bent  in  this  way. 

A  quite  common  form  of  pipe-bending  jig  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  270. 

The  outside  edge  of  the  semicircular  casting  has 
a  groove  in  it  that  just  fits  half-way  round  the  pipe. 
The  small  wheel  attached  to  the  lever  has  a  cor- 
responding groove  on  its  edge.  When  the  two  are 
in  the  position  shown  the  hole  left  between  them 
is  the  same  shape  and  size  as  the  cross-section  of 
the  pipe. 

To  bend  the  pipe,  the  lever  is  swung  to  the  ex- 
treme left,  the  end  of  the  heated  pipe  inserted  in 


MISCELLANEOUS    V/ORK. 


231 


the  catch  at  A  (which  has  a  hole  in  it  the  same  size 
as  the  pipe) ,  and  the  lever  pulled  back  to  the  right, 
bending  the  pipe  as  it  goes. 

The  stem  on  the  lower  edge  of  the  casting  was 


FIG.  270. 

made  to  fit  in  a  vise,  where  the  jig  was  held  while 
in  operation. 

Annealing  Copper  and  Brass.  —  Brass  or  copper 
may  be  softened  or  annealed  by  heating  the  metal 
to  a  red  heat  and  cooling  suddenly  in  cold  water, 
copper  being  annealed  in  the  same  way  that  steel  is 
hardened.  Copper  annealed  this  way  is  left  very 
soft,  somewhat  like  lead.  Hammering  copper  or 
brass  causes  it  to  harden  and  become  springy. 
When  working  brass  or  copper,  if  much  bending  or 
hammering  is  done,  the  metal  should  be  annealed 
frequently. 


232  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

Bending  Cast  Iron. — It  is  sometimes  necessary  to 
straighten  castings  which  have  become  warped  or 
twisted.  .This  may  be  done  to  some  extent  by 
heating  the  iron  and  bending  into  the  desired  shape. 
The  part  to  be  bent  should  be  heated  to  what  might 
be  described  as  a  dull-yellow  heat.  The  bending  is 
done  by  gradually  applying  pressure,  not  by  blows. 
For  light  work  two  pairs  of  tongs  should  give  about 
the  right  amount  of  leverage  for  twisting  and  bend- 
ing. 

When  properly  handled  (very  "gingerly"),  thin 
castings  may  be  bent  to  a  considerable  extent. 
Before  attempting  any  critical  work  some  experi- 
menting should  be  done  on  a  piece  of  scrap  to  deter- 
mine at  just  what  heat  the  iron  will  work  to  _  the 
best  advantage,  and  how  much  bending  it  will 
stand  without  breaking. 

Case-hardening.  —  Case-hardening  is  a  process  by 
which  articles  made  of  soft  steel  or  wrought  iron 
are  given  a  hard  wearing  surface. 

Wrought  iron  or  machine-steel  will  not  harden 
to  any  appreciable  extent,  and  this  fact  would  pre- 
vent the  use  of  either  metal  in  many  places  where 
they  would  be  the  ideal  materials  if  they  could  only 
be  given  a  hard  surface. 

This  hard  surface  can,  however,  be  had  by 
means  of  the  process  known  as  "Case-hardening." 
(Wrought  iron  and  machine-steel  are  taken  as 
being  practically  alike,  as  they  are,  so  far  as  chemi- 
cal composition  is  concerned.) 

Practically  the  only  difference  between  wrought 
iron  and  tool-steel  is  that  tool-steel  contains  a  little 


MISCELLANEOUS   WORK.  233 

more  of  the  element  called  carbon  than  wrought 
iron  does.  Tool-steel  can  be  hardened  by  heating 
to  a  red  heat  and  cooling  suddenly,  because  it  does 
contain  this  carbon;  while  wrought  iron  can  not  be 
hardened,  on  account  of  the  lack  of  it.  If  then  by 
some  means  carbon  can  be  added  to  the  metal  on 
the  outside  of  an  article  made  of  wrought  iron  or 
machine-steel,  the  outside  part  will  be  made  into 
tool-steel,  and  may  then  be  hardened  in  the  ordinary 
manner,  while  the  inside  metal  will  be  soft  and 
unchanged. 

Wrought  iron  or  machine-steel  if  heated  to  a  high 
heat  in  contact  with  charred  leather,  ground  bone, 
or  other  material  containing  a  great  deal  of  carbon 
will  "take  up"  or  absorb  carbon  from  that  mate- 
rial ;  and  the  outside  will  be  converted  into  a  high- 
carbon  (tool)  steel,  which  may  be  hardened  by  cool- 
ing suddenly  from  a  high  heat.  This  process  is 
known  as  case-hardening,  and  is  used  for  work 
which  requires  a  hard  wearing  surface  backed  up 
by  a  softer  and  tougher  material  to  resist  shocks. 

If  a  piece  of  wrought  iron  which  has  been 
case-hardened  be  broken  across,  it  will  appear 
something  like  Fig.  271.  The  out- 
side layer,  or  coating,  of  hard  steel 
can  be  easily  distinguished  from 
the  inner  core  of  softer  unchanged 
metal. 

The  "  depth  of  penetration"  of 
the  carbon  (or,  in  other  words,  the 
depth  to  which  the  iron  is  changed  2?I' 

into  steel)  is  determined  by  the  temperature  to  which 


234  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

the  metal  is  heated,  the  length  of  time  it  is  kept  at 
that  temperature,  and  the  substance  it  is  heated  in 
contact  with. 

The  carbon  penetrates  faster  at  a  high  heat;  but 
a  high  heat  can  not  always  be  used,  particularly  if 
that  mottled  appearance  so  often  seen  on  case- 
hardened  articles  is  wanted.  Pieces  which  are  to 
be  mottled  should  not  be  heated  much  above  a 
good  red  heat,  as  a  higher  heat  destroys  the  color. 
The  longer  the  work  is  kept  at  the  proper  heat  the 
deeper  the  carbon  penetrates.  So,  when  the  same 
heat  and  the  same  case-hardening  mixture  are  used 
all  the  time,  the  depth  of  hardness  on  the  pieces 
treated  can  be  determined  by  the  length  of  time 
the  pieces  are  hot.  For  ordinary  work,  where  it  is 
not  necessary  to  have  the  mottled  coloring  on  the 
pieces,  about  a  good  yellow  heat  should  be  used— 
about  as  high  a  heat  as  ordinary  cast  iron  will  stand 
without  danger  of  going  to  pieces. 

As  stated  before,  a  case-hardened  piece  of  iron 
or  machine-steel  is  really  made  up  of  two  distinct 
metals — the  outside  hard  shell  of  high-carbon  steel 
(which  is  the  same  as  tool-steel)  and  the  inside 
softer  core  of  the  original  material.  This  outside 
coating  can  be  treated  in  the  same  manner  as  ordi- 
nary tool-steel;  that  is,  it  can  be  hardened  and 
annealed  just  as  tool-steel  is.  In  fact,  when  a  case- 
hardened  article  is  suddenly  cooled  from  a  red  heat 
exactly  the  same  thing  is  done  as  when  hardening 
a  piece  of  ordinary  tool-steel,  with,  however,  this  dif- 
ference: in  hardening  tool-steel  the  piece  is  hard- 
ened clear  through,  and  for  ordinary  purposes  is  so 


MISCELLANEOUS   WORK.  235 

hard  as  to  be  almost  useless;  while  with  a  piece  of 
case-hardened  machine-steel,  for  instance,  the  out- 
side only  is  hardened  (because  the  outside  only  is 
tool-steel),  while  the  inside  is  left  tough  and  com- 
paratively soft.  In  the  case-hardened  piece  there 
is  a  tough  inside  core  which  will  stand  shocks 
that  would  snap  off  a  piece  of  hardened  tool-steel 
and  an  outside  coating  which  is  as  hard  and  is  the 
same  as  hardened  tool-steel.  This  gives  a  combi- 
nation of  hardness  and  toughness  which  is  not  pos- 
sible with  either  machine-steel  or  tool-steel  alone; 
and  it  is  this  fact  which  makes  case-hardened  arti- 
cles so  valuable  for  many  purposes. 

To  repeat:  The  object  of  case-hardening  is  to 
convert  the  outside  of  a  low  carbon  steel  or  iron  into 
a  high-carbon  steel  that  can  be  hardened  easily; 
and  this  converting  is  done  by  heating  the  piece  in 
contact  with  some  substance  containing  a  large 
amount  of  carbon. 

By  taking  certain  precautions  while  heating  and 
cooling,  the  surface  of  the  case-hardened  pieces 
may  be  given  a  mottled  coloring  of  reds,  blues,  and 
greens,  which  when  rightly  done  is  sometimes  very 
beautiful.  Such  coloring  is  often  seen  on  gun- 
locks,  finished  wrenches,  etc. 

Two  common  methods  of  case-hardening  are  in 
use — what  might  be  called  the  cyanide  method 
and  the  bone  or  animal-charcoal  process. 

Cyanide  Case-hardening. — For  the  cyanide  method 
cyanide  of  potassium  is  used — the  purer  the  better. 

One  way  of  using  the  cyanide  is  as  follows :  Small 
pieces  and  pieces  which  need  only  a  very  thin  shell 


236  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

of  hard  steel  are  heated  to  a  high  red  heat,  drawn 
from  the  fire  and  sprinkled  over  with  cyanide  of 
potassium,  reheated  for  a  few  seconds  to  give  the 
carbon  from  the  cyanide  a  chance  to  "soak  in," 
drawn  from  the  fire  again,  sprinkled  with  the  cya- 
nide, and  cooled  in  cold  water.  This  is  an  easy  and 
quick  way  when  it  will  answer  the  purpose. 

This  method  is  also  of  use  when  case-hardening 
in  spots.  When  only  a  hole  or  some  small  part  of 
a  piece  is  wanted  hardened  a  small  piece  of  the 
cyanide  may  be  placed  on  that  particular  spot 
and  the  hardening  confined  to  the  area  covered  by 
the  cyanide. 

Another  method  of  using  the  cyanide  is  to  melt 
it  and  heat  red-hot  in  a  ladle  or  pot.  The  pieces  to 
be  case-hardened  are  heated  and  placed  in  the  red- 
hot  cyanide  and  left  there  for  some  minutes.  After 
"soaking"  a  proper  length  of  time  they  are  hard- 
ened by  cooling  in  cold  water. 

This  method  when  properly  carried  out  gives  a 
mottled  appearance  to  the  case-hardened  surfaces 
if  they  have  been  previously  polished. 

The  longer  the  articles  are  left  in  the  heated  cya- 
nide the  deeper  will  be  the  penetration  of  the  carbon, 
although  not  quite  in  proportion  to  the  time. 
Heating  in  this  way  for  about  ten  minutes  will  give 
a  penetration  of  perhaps  one  hundredth  of  an  inch. 

Case-hardening  with  Bone. — This  method  is  used 
when  a  deeper  coating  is  needed.  The  pieces  are 
first  packed  in  an  iron  box  in  such  a  way  that  they 
are  completely  surrounded  by  ground  bone  or 
some  other  material  containing  a  great  deal  of  ani- 


MISCELLANEOUS    WORK.  237 

mal  carbon.  On  the  bottom  of  the  box  is  placed  a 
layer  of  the  ground  bone  about  an  inch  deep;  on 
this  are  laid  pieces  to  be  case-hardened,  leaving  a 
space  about  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide  on  all 
sides  of  every  piece;  over  these  pieces  is  put  more 
bone,  covering  them  about  one  inch  deep;  then 
more  pieces  and  more  bone  until  the  box  is  full. 
There  must  be  a  top  layer  of  bone  at  least  as  thick, 
if  not  somewhat  thicker,  than  the  bottom  layer. 
The  box  is  then  sealed  up  air-tight  (to  prevent  the 
oxidation  of  the  bone)  with  fire-clay  and  it  and  its 
contents  heated  in  a  furnace  to  the  right  heat  and 
kept  at  this  heat  for  several  hours.  The  deeper  the 
coating  is  needed  the  longer  the  box  is  kept  hot. 
When  the  box  has  been  heated  long  enough  it  is 
withdrawn  from  the  fire,  the  top  taken  off,  and  the 
pieces  picked  out  while  still  red-hot  and  hardened 
in  cold  water.  Or,  as  is  often  done,  after  taking 
off  the  top  of  the  box  it  is  turned  bottom  side  up 
over  the  tank  and  the  whole  contents,  bone  and  all, 
dumped  into  the  water. 

The  boxes  used  are  made  of  cast  or  wrought  iron, 
but  cast-iron  boxes  are  very  satisfactory  and  are 
easily  replaced  as  they  wear  out. 

The  bone  may  be  used  several  times  before  it  is 
"spent." 

When  it  is  desired  to  give  the  articles  a  bright 
mottled  color  on  the  surface  they  must  be  polished 
before  case-hardening  and  should  be  packed  in 
"charred"  bone;  that  is,  fresh  bone  which  has 
been  heated  just  hot  enough  to  char  it  black. 

When  cooling,  the  cover  of  the  box  should  be 


238  FORGE-PRACTICE. 

removed  and  the  articles  dumped  by  turning  the 
box  upside  down  over  the  cooling-tank,  keeping  the 
box  very  close  to  the  surface  of  the  water. 

Good  results  are  obtained  by  using  a  mixture  of 
about  half  and  half  charred  bone  and  powdered 
charcoal. 

The  penetration  of  the  carbon  is  perhaps  one 
hundredth  of  an  inch  for  each  hour  the  pieces  are 
left  hot.  It  is  possible  to  convert  a  piece  of  wrought 
iron  to  tool-steel  clear  through  in  this  way. 

Sometimes  cyanide  is  mixed  with  the  bone  and 
used  as  above.  This  hastens  the  penetration  of 
the  carbon  somewhat. 

Milling-cutters  and  tools  of  that  character  which 
are  only  to  be  used  once,  or  on  light  work,  may  be 
made  of  machine-steel  and  case-hardened  by  using 
bone. 

After  case-hardening,  or  carbonizing,  they  may 
be  hardened,  tempered,  and  ground  in  the  usual 
way. 

Case-hardening,  in  Parts  Only,  of  Pieces. — Some- 
times it  is  desirable  to  case-harden  only  certain 
parts  of  a  piece.  In  such  a  case  the  parts  to  be  left 
untreated  may  be  covered  with  a  coating  of  clay 
held  in  place  with  wire.  Wherever  the  work  is 
protected  by  the  clay  it  remains  uncarbonized, 
while  the  uncovered  parts  can  be  hardened.  After 
covering  the  parts  with  the  clay  as  above,  the  case- 
hardening  may  be  done  in  the  usual  way  by  pack- 
ing the  object  in  bone  and  heating  as  usual. 

Another  way  of  obtaining  the  same  result  is  to 
carbonize  the  entire  surface  and  then  machine  off 


MISCELLANEOUS   WORK. 


239 


the  parts  wanted  untreated;    thus,  suppose  a  shaft 
is  wanted  similar  to  Fig.  272,  A,  with  only  the  parts 


FIG.  272. 

marked  D,  E,  and  F  case-hardened.  When  the 
shaft  is  first  made,  only  the  parts  wanted  hard 
(D,  E,  and  F)  should  be  turned  to  size,  the  rest 
being  left  in  the  rough. 

The  shaft  is  then  carbonized  in  the  usual  way 
and  annealed  instead  of  hardened.  The  rough  parts 
are  then  turned  to  size;  the  cut  taken  removes  all 
of  the  carbonized  coating  on  these  parts,  exposing 
the  untreated  metal  underneath.  After  this  the 
shaft  is  heated  in  a  fire  and  hardened,  and  as  the 
parts  D,  E,  and  F  are  the  only  parts  left  carbonized, 
they  will  be  the  only  parts  hardened,  leaving  the 
rest  soft. 


TABLES, 


TABLE  I. 

CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

1 

•7854 

.0490 

3 

9.4248 

7.0686 

% 

.9817 

.0767 

i 

9-8I75 

7  .  6699 

1 

1.1781 

.  1  104 

i 

IO  .  2IO 

8.2958 

% 

1-3744 

•I5°3 

10  .603 

8  .9462 

1 

1.5708 

.1963 

| 

10  .  996 

9  .6211 

% 

1.7671 

.2485  » 

f 

II/388 

10.321 

I 

1-9635 

.3068 

I 

II  .781 

11.045 

:Ve 

2.1598 

•3712 

1 

12.174 

H-793 

I 

2.3562 

.4417 

4 

12  .  566 

12  .  566 

% 

2-5525 

.5184 

* 

I2-959 

I3-364 

J 

2.7489 

•  6013 

i 

!3-352 

14.186 

% 

2.9452 

.6902 

1 

J3-744 

I5-033 

i 

3.1416 

.7854 

\ 

14-137 

I5-904 

Xe 

3-3379 

.8866 

f 

14.530 

16  .  800 

1 

3-5343 

.9940 

I 

14-923 

17.728 

% 

3-73o6 

1.1075 

I 

I5-3I5 

18.665 

i 

3.9270 

i  .  2272 

5 

15.708 

19-635 

^6 

4-1233 

I-353° 

i 

16  .  101 

20  .629 

I 

4.3197 

i  .4849 

i 

16.493 

21  .648 

& 

4.5160 

1.6230 

t 

16.886 

22  .691 

i 

4.7124 

1.7671 

\ 

17.279 

23-758 

% 

4.9087 

I-9I75 

f 

17.671 

24.850 

i 

S-JOS1 

2.0739 

f 

18  .064 

25.967 

%. 

5-30I4 

2.2365 

I 

18.457 

27  .  lOQ 

i 

5-4978 

2-4053 

6 

18.850 

28  .  274 

% 

5-694i 

2  .5802 

i 

19.242 

29.465 

* 

5-8905 

2  .  7612 

i 

I9-635 

30  .680 

% 

6.0868 

2.9483 

t 

20  .028 

3I-9I9 

2 

6.2832 

3.I4I6 

\ 

20  .420 

33.l83 

X 

6-4795 

3-3410 

f 

20.813 

34-472 

J 

6.6759 

3-5466 

f 

21  .  2O6 

35-785 

% 

6.8722 

3-7583 

I 

21.598 

37.122 

i 

7.0686 

3-976I 

7 

21  .  991 

38.485 

% 

7.2649 

4  .  2000 

i 

22.384 

39-871 

1 

7-46i3 

4-4301 

1 

22  .  776 

41  .  282 

^6 

7-6576 

4  .6664 

f 

23.169 

42.718 

\ 

7-8540 

4.9087 

i 

23-562 

44.179 

% 

8-0503 

5-I572 

i 

23-955 

45.664 

\ 

8.2467 

5.4II9 

f 

24-347 

47-I73 

% 

8.4430 

5-6727 

i 

24.740 

48.707 

t 

8.6394 

5-9396 

8 

25.I33 

50-265 

% 

8.8357 

6  .  2126 

f 

25.525 

51  -849 

| 

9.0321 

6  .4918 

i 

25.918 

53-456 

% 

9  .  2284 

6.7771 

t 

26.311 

55-088 

243 


244 


TABLES. 


TABLE  I— (Continued). 
CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

;     Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

8* 

26.704 

56-745 

1  6J 

51.051              207.39 

I 

27  .096 

58.426 

\ 

51-836 

213.82 

f 

27.489 

60.132 

I 

52  .622 

220.35 

1 

27.882 

61.862 

17 

53-407 

226.98 

9 

28.274 

63-617 

1 

54.192 

233-71 

i 

28.667 

65-397 

* 

54-978 

240.53 

v 

29  .060 

67  .  2OI 

I 

55-763 

247-45 

i 

29.452 

69  .029 

18 

56.549 

254-47 

Si 

29-845 

70.882 

i 

57-334 

261.59 

j 

30-238 

72.760 

i 

58.119 

268.80 

1  ' 

30-631 

74  .662 

f 

58.905 

276  .  12 

i 

31-023 

76-589 

J9 

59-690 

283.53 

10 

31.416 

78-540 

i 

60  .476 

291  .04 

I 

31.809 

80.516 

i 

61  .  261 

298.65 

i 

32  .  2OI 

82.516 

i 

62  .046 

306.35 

I 

32.594 

84-541 

20 

62.832 

3I4.I6 

i 

32.987 

86.590 

i 

63.617 

322  .06 

33-379 

88.664 

* 

64.403 

33°-°6 

33-772 

90.763 

J 

65.188 

338.i6 

34-165 

92.886 

21 

65-973 

346  .  36 

II 

34.558 

95-033 

i 

66.759 

354-66 

1 

34-95° 

97.205 

* 

67-544 

363-05 

•• 

35-343 

99.402 

I 

68.330 

371-54 

i; 

35-736 

101  .62 

22 

69.115 

380.13 

36.128 

103.87 

i 

69  .900 

388.82 

j- 

36.521 

106  .  14 

* 

70.686 

397-6i 

'.' 

36.9*4 

108.43 

* 

71.471 

406  .49 

1r 

37-306 

110.75 

23 

72.257 

415-48 

12 

37-699 

113.10 

J 

73-042 

424-56 

i 

38-485 

117.86 

$ 

73-827 

433-74 

i 

39.270 

122.72 

f 

74.6i3 

443  -OI 

f 

40.055 

127.68 

24 

75-398 

452.39 

13 

40  .841 

132.73 

1 

76.184 

461  .86 

i 

41  .626 

J37-89 

i 

76  .969 

47i  -44 

i 

42.412 

143  -J4 

f 

77-754 

481  .  ii 

J 

43-197 

148.49 

25 

78.540 

490-87 

14 

43-982 

153-94 

i 

79-325 

5°0-74 

1 

44.768 

J59-48 

i 

80  .  1  1  1 

510.71 

5 

45-553 

165.13 

f 

80.896 

520.77 

* 

46.338 

170.87 

26 

81.681 

530.93 

15 

47.124 

176.71 

i 

82.467 

54I-I9 

i 

47.909 

182.65 

i 

83-252 

551-55 

* 

48.695 

188.69 

f 

84.038 

562  .00 

i 

49  .480 

194-83 

27 

84-823 

572.56 

16 

50-265 

2OI  .06 

1 

85.608 

583-21 

TABLES. 


245 


Tx\BLE  I— (Continued). 

CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

27i 

86.394 

593-96 

38f 

121.737 

II79-3 

I 

87.179 

604  .81 

39 

122  .522 

1194  .6 

28 

87.965 

6I5-75 

i 

123.308 

1210  .O 

i 

88.750 

626.80 

i 

124.093 

1225.4 

i 

89-535 

637-94 

I 

124.878 

1241  .0 

i 

90.321 

649  .  18 

40 

125.664 

1256  .  6. 

29 

91  .  106 

660  .  52 

i 

126  .449 

1272.4 

j 

91  .  892 

671  .96 

\ 

!27-235 

1288.2 

^ 

92.677 

683.49 

1 

128   ;O2O 

1304.2 

i 

93-462 

695  -13 

4i 

128.805 

1320.3 

3° 

94.248 

706.86 

i 

129.591 

1336.4 

i 

95-°33 

718.69 

\ 

130.376 

!352-7 

i 

95.819 

730.62 

I 

131  .161 

1369.0 

i 

96  .604 

742.64 

42 

i3I-947 

1385-4 

31 

97-389 

754-77 

\ 

132.732 

1402  .0 

i 

98.175 

766.99 

* 

!33-5l8 

1418.6 

i 

98  .  960 

779-31 

1 

134-303 

1435-4 

i 

99.746 

791-73 

43 

135.088 

1452.2 

32 

100.531 

804.25 

i 

I35-874 

1469  .  i 

j 

101  .  316 

816.86 

i 

136.659 

1486.2 

i 

102  .  102 

829.58 

I 

J37-445 

1503-3 

i 

102.887 

842.39 

44 

138.230 

1520.5 

33 

103.673 

855-30 

i 

139-015 

1537-9 

I 

104.458 

868.31 

\ 

139.801 

1555-3 

* 

105.243 

881  .41 

I 

140  .  586 

1572.8 

1 

106  .029 

894  .62 

45 

141  -372 

i590-4 

34 

106  .814 

907.92 

i 

142.157 

1608.2 

i 

107  .600 

921.32 

i 

142.942 

1626  .0 

i 

108.385 

934-82 

1 

143.728 

1643-9 

i 

109  .  170 

948.42 

46 

*44-5I3 

1661  .9 

35 

109.956 

962  .  1  1 

i 

145.299 

1680  .0 

i 

i  10  .  741 

975-91 

\ 

146  .084 

1698.2 

* 

111.527 

989.80 

I 

146  .869 

1716.5 

I 

112.312 

1003  .8 

47 

I47-655 

1734-9 

36 

113.097 

1017  .9 

i 

148  .440 

1753-5 

i 

113.883 

1032.1 

| 

149  .  226 

1772.1 

\ 

114.668 

1046.3 

f 

150  .01  i 

1790.8 

I 

iiS-454 

1060  .  7 

48 

150.796 

1809  .6 

37 

116.239 

1075.2 

i 

I5I.582 

1828.5 

i 

117  .024 

1089.8 

\ 

152-367 

1847-5 

i 

117  .810 

1104.5 

I 

153.153 

1866.5 

1 

118  .  596 

1119.2 

49 

I53-938 

1885.7 

38 

119.381 

1134-1 

i 

154-723 

1905.0 

i 

120  .  166 

1149.1 

i 

I55.509 

1924.4 

\ 

120  .951 

1164.  2 

i 

156.294 

1943-9 

246 


TABLES. 


TABLE   I— (Continued). 
CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

5° 

157.080 

I963.5 

62} 

196-350 

3068  .0 

i 

157.865 

1983.2 

63" 

197.920 

3117.2 

| 

158  .650 

2003  .  o 

\ 

199.491 

3166.9 

£ 

159.436 

2022  .8 

64 

2OI  .  062 

3217.0 

51 

l6o  .  221 

2042  .8 

\ 

202.633 

3267.5 

i 

161  .007 

2062  .  9 

65 

204  .  204 

3318.3 

i 

161  .  792 

2083.1 

\ 

2°5-774 

3369.6 

I 

162.577 

2103.3 

66 

2°7-345 

3421  .2 

52 

163.363' 

2123.7 

\ 

208  .916 

3473-2 

i 

164  .  148 

2144.2 

6? 

2IO  .487 

3525-7 

* 

164.934 

2164.8 

\ 

212  .0^8 

357s  -5 

1 

165.719 

2185.4 

68 

213.628 

3631-7 

53 

166  .  504 

22O6  .  2 

\ 

215.199 

3685.3 

i 

167  .  290 

2227  .0 

69 

216  .  770 

3739-3 

i 

168.075 

2248  .0 

\ 

218.341 

3793-7 

I 

168.861 

2269  .  1 

70 

219.911 

3848.5 

54 

169  .646 

2290  .  2 

i 

221  .482 

3903-6 

i 

I70-43i 

23II-5 

7i 

223-°53 

3959-2 

§ 

171.217 

2332.8 

\ 

224  .624 

4015.2 

| 

172  .002 

2354-3 

72 

226  .  195 

4071.5 

55 

172.788 

2375-8 

\ 

227.765 

4128  .  2 

i 

J73-573 

2397-5 

73 

229.336 

4185.4 

174.358 

2419  .  2 

i 

230.907 

4242.9 

£ 

J75  -J44 

2441  .  I 

74 

232.478 

4300.8 

56 

175.929 

2463.0 

i 

234-049 

4359-2 

1 

176.715 

2485  .0 

75 

235.619 

44I7.9 

* 

177.500 

2507.2 

\ 

237.190 

4477-0 

* 

178.285 

2529-4 

76 

238.761 

4536.5 

57 

179.071 

2551.8 

i 

240.332 

4596.3 

i 

179.856 

2574.2 

77 

241  .903 

4656.6 

\ 

180.642 

2596.7 

\ 

243-473 

47I7.3 

\ 

181  .427 

2619  .4 

78 

245-044 

4778.4 

58 

l82  .212 

2642  .  I 

i 

246  .615 

4839.8 

182.998 

2664  .9 

79 

248.186 

4901.7 

| 

183.783 

2687.8 

\ 

249.757 

4963.9 

J 

184  .  569 

2710.9 

80 

25L327 

5026.5 

59 

185.354 

2734.0 

\ 

252.898 

5089.6 

186.139 

2757.2 

81 

254-469 

5r53-o 

186.925 

2780.5 

i 

256  .040 

5216.8 

187  .  7IO 

2803.9 

82 

257.611 

5281  .0 

60 

188.496 

2827  .4 

i 

259  .  181 

5345-6 

\ 

I9O  .066 

2874.8 

83 

260  .  752 

5410.6 

61 

191.637 

2922.5 

\ 

262.323 

5476.0 

i 

193.208 

2970  .6 

84 

263.894 

5541-8 

62 

194.779 

3019.1 

\ 

265.465 

5607.9 

TABLES.  247 

TABLE   I— (Continued). 
CIRCUMFERENCES  AND  AREAS  OF  CIRCLES. 


Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

Diam- 
eter. 

Circumfer- 
ence. 

Area. 

85 

267.035 

5674.5 

93 

292  .  168 

6792.9 

1 

268  .  606 

5741-5 

i 

293-739 

6866.1 

86 

270.177 

5808.8 

94 

295.310 

6939.8 

J 

271.748 

5876.5 

i 

296.881 

7013.8 

87t 

273-3I9 

5944-7 

95 

298.451 

7088.2 

$ 

274.889 

6013  .  2 

i 

300  .022 

7163.0 

88 

276  .460 

6o82.I 

96 

301-593 

7238.2 

i 

278.031 

6151.4 

i 

303.164 

7313-8 

89 

279  .602 

6221  .  I 

97 

304.734 

7389.8 

i 

281  .173 

6291  .2 

i 

306.305 

7466  .2 

90 

282.743 

6361.7 

98 

307.876 

7543-0 

i 

284.314 

6432.6 

i 

309-447 

7620  .  i 

91 

285.885 

6503.9 

99 

311  .018 

7697.7 

4 

287.456 

6575-5 

* 

312.588 

7775-6 

92 

289  .027 

6647  .6 

IOO 

3I4-1S9 

7854.0 

i 

290.597 

6720  .  i 

248 


TABLES. 


TABLE   II. 

TEMPERATURES  TO  WHICH  HARDENED  TOOLS  SHOULD  BE  HEATED 
TO  PROPERLY  "DRAW  THE  TEMPER,"  TOGETHER  WITH 
THE  COLORS  OF  SCALE  APPEARING  ON  A  POLISHED-STEEL 
SURFACE  AT  THOSE  TEMPERATURES,  AND  OTHER  MEANS 
OF  DETECTING  PROPER  HEATING. 


Kind  of  Tool. 

Temper- 
ature, 
Fahr. 

Color  of 
Scale. 

Action  of 
File. 

Other  Indi- 
cations. 

Scrapers     for    ordi- 

200° 

Water  dries 

nary  use. 

quickly. 

Burnishers. 

Very    pale 

Can  hardly 

L  a  r  d  -  o  i  1 

Light    turning    and 

43°° 

yellow. 

be    made 

smokes 

finishing  tools. 

to  catch. 

slightly. 

Engraving-tools. 

Can      be 

Lathe-tools. 

made    to 

Milling-cutters. 

460° 

Straw  -  yel- 

catch 

Lathe-  and   planer- 

low. 

with    dif- 

tools    for     heavy 

ficulty. 

work. 

Taps. 

Dies  for  screw-cut'g. 

Reamers. 

Punches. 

Dies. 

Flat  drills. 

Wood-  working  tools. 

500° 

Brown-yel- 

Plane-irons. 

low. 

Wood-chisels. 

Wood-turning  tools. 

Twist  drills. 

Sledges. 

Bl'ksmiths'    ham'rs. 

Cold-chisels  for  very 

530° 

Light  pur- 

Scratches. 

light  work. 

ple. 

Axes. 

550° 

Dark  pur- 

Cold-chisels for    or- 

ple. 

dinary  use. 

Blue,  ting'd 

slightly 

with  red. 

Stone-cutting  chisels 

Files     with 

Carving-knives. 

great  dif- 

Screw-drivers. 

ficulty. 

Saws. 

Springs. 

58o° 

Blue. 

Files    with 

Lard-oil 

610° 

Pale  blue. 

difficulty. 

burns   or 

630° 

Greenish 

flashes. 

blue. 

TABLES. 


249 


TABLE  III. 
DECIMAL  EQUIVALENTS  OF  FRACTIONS  OF  ONE  INCH. 

From  Kent's  Mechanical  Engineer's  Pocket-book. 


1/64 

.015625 

33/64 

•5I5625 

1/32 

•03125 

J7/32 

•53125 

3/64 

.046875 

35/64 

•546875 

1/16 

.0625 

9/16 

•5625 

5/64 

.078125 

37/64 

•578l25 

3/32 

•09375 

19/32 

•59375 

7/64 

•109375 

39/64 

•609375 

1/8 

•125 

5/8 

.625 

9/64 

.140625 

41/64 

.640625 

5/32 

•15625 

21/32 

•65625 

11/64 

•I7l875 

43/64 

.671875 

3/16 

•1875 

11/16 

•6875 

13/64 

.203125 

45/64 

•703125 

7/32 

.21875 

23/32 

•71875 

15/64 

•234375 

47/64 

•734375 

1/4 

•25 

3/4 

•75 

17/64 

.  265625 

49/64 

•765625 

'  9/32 

.28125 

25/32 

.78125 

19/64 

.296875 

5J/64 

.796875 

5/16 

•3I25 

13/16 

.8125 

21/64 

•328125 

53/64 

.828125 

11/32 

•34375 

27/32 

•84375 

23/64 

•359375 

55/64 

•859375 

3/8 

•375 

7/8 

•875 

25/64 

.390625 

57/64 

.890625 

13/32 

.40625 

29/32 

.90625 

27/64 

.421875 

59/64 

.921875 

7/16 

•4375 

I5A6 

•9375 

29/64 

•453125 

61/64 

•953125 

15/32 

•46875 

31/32 

•96875 

3J/64 

•484375 

63/64 

.984375 

1/2 

•5° 

i 

i. 

w 


WEIGHTS  OF  BAR  STEEL  PER  LINEAL  FOOT. 
The  weight  given  in  the  table  is  for  a  bar  of  steel  i  foot  long  and  of  the  dimensions  named. 

(From  Jones  &  Laughlins.) 

Thickness  in  Inches. 

« 

CO  fico  0   re  ir>  0  </-.  0  ir>  0  v.  0  ir  0   0   O  O   0   0  0 

XI    Pl  O    HI    10  O  X1  O    w,  re  PI    O    O  i^C    re  O    i^  -t  X    "i 

ro  -1-  -t  .r.  -0  u-.vo    <-X    O  O    -    «    P.    re  -,  t^X    O    -.  i^ 

S 

CO    10  <N    O  i^  -t  O    »/".  C"   -tX    ro  t^-  —  O    O    C"  i  —  O    tr    r^'  O 
ON  ro  r^*  O    "1~  X    w    C^O    rt''H    C"  O    "^t1-1    C*  <"O  X    rO  XXX 

04    ro  CO  *"t"  't  ^t"  LO  iOO    t"^»X  X    C"   O    *-*    i-<    ro  *t  >C    *"*•  O    <"O 

s-t 

to  r-*  O"  -*    ro  10  t>*  O    i^X    w    w>  O  fC  f^  Q  CC    "%  ro  O    <A  O 
f.VS    -    u-,cC    •-»    -t   -    t^  r--:   O  O     0)     C"    \r.  w    -rf  i^  Q    rC  X    -t 

X 

«    c^o"'  0  ?°t  Ji.  NJf.  POX  "5;  3-  3  0  °-  I^c'vS    £xT  0 

<N    tN    d    (N    rO'^rO*1'T^'Voi/~yONO    r^t^-OC    C^O    *—    ^]    "1"  *"** 

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O    *N    c*    *f  i/~,  i^X    O    '"O  it~,  t^»  O    ro  i/"-X    O    Iy~-  O    ^O  O    O    O 

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0 

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M    M    M    i-i    KH    c]    rt    rj    d    ro  ro  ro  -t  -t  -t  >O  iv,O    t^-  t^X    O 

^O    O    roo    C"  f  O  O    ci    CN  ir,  c*    O>  '-O  M    C^  U">X    --1    "1"  X    *1"  O 

M     M     M     M     t-i     1-1     M     O*     01     C4     Ol     rorOrOro-^-Tj-U~;iOO    t^-X 

* 

O    "OvO    r^X  CO    O  O    -"    (N    -t  "~/O  X    O  O    ro  10,  r>»  O    ""•  O 

"fr  •*               0 

1 

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M               N         w                    rt  "1 

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MHIMMHMHIWCINCIINfO 

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»?w3i 

H*H^««:-^«»:C^            r^^C^*            r^H«C^f            ^N            H^ 

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M    M    M    c*    dd    rorOTt-'^>i/%iOCO    O    d    TfOO^tH 

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INDEX. 


Annealing,  in  general,  175,  191. 
at  forge,  192. 
copper  and  brass,  231. 
"          in  boxes,  193. 
"        ,  special  methods  of,  194. 
"          water,  192. 
Anvil,  description  of,  6. 

Bending,  in  general,  59. 
cast  iron,  232. 
duplicate  work,  146. 
pipe,  226. 

Bessemer  steel,  making  of,  165. 
Blast-furnace,  description  of,  160. 
Bolts,  general  dimensions  of,  77. 

"    ,  cupping-tool  for,  78. 

"    ,  heading-tool  for,  78. 

"    ,  making  of,  77. 

"    ,  upset-head,  79. 

"    ,  welded-head,  80. 
Bone,  for  case-hardening,  236. 
Borax,  use  as  flux,  21. 
Boss  on  flange,  forging  of,  144. 

"      "   lever,  forging  of,  in. 
Bowls,  making  of,  88. 
Brace,  or  bracket,  welded,  119. 
Brass,  annealing  of,  231. 
Brazing,  flux  used,  226. 
"      ,  methods  of,  223. 


252  INDEX. 

Brazing,  process  of,  222. 
"      ,  spelter  for,  224. 
Butt-weld,  34. 

Calculation  of  stock,  see  Stock  calculation. 

Cape-chisels,  forging  and  tempering  of,  199. 

Carbon,  effect  of,  on  iron  and  steel,  163,  164,  174,  175,  176, 

"      ,  percentage  of,  in  iron  and  steel,  159,  169. 
Case-hardening,  in  general,  232. 

"  ,  colored,  235,  236,  237. 

"  ,  different  methods,  235. 

"  in  boxes  with  bone,  236. 

"  in  spots,  236,  238. 

"  ,  penetration  of  carbon  in,  236,  238. 

"  with  cyanide  of  potassium,  235. 

Cast  iron,  bending  of,  232. 

"       "   ,  description  of,  160. 
Chain,  making  of,  29. 

"     ,  stock  required  to  make  link,  48. 
Chain-stock,  forging  of,  88. 

Chisels,  blacksmith's,  hot  and  cold,  description  and  use,  6. 
"     ,  "  ,  forging  and  tempering  of,  218. 

"     ,  ,  grinding  of,  8. 

"        or  cutters  for  steam-hammer,  123. 
Coal,  requirements  of  forge,  2. 
Cold-chisel,  description  of  blacksmith's,  7. 
"  making  of,  197. 

"  tempering  of,  180. 

Connecting-rod,  forging  of  forked  end,  104. 

"  ,       "       with  steam-hammer,  138. 

"  ,  stock  calculation  for,  93. 

Copper,  annealing  of,  231. 
Copper  pipe,  bending  of,  226. 
Crank-shaft,  calculation  of  stock  required,  91. 

"          ,  forging  of,  with  steam-hammer,  135. 
"          ,       "         "    single-throw,  90,  97. 
"          ,       "        "   double-throw,  99. 
"          ,       "        "   triple-throw,  101. 
Crucible-steel,  169. 
Cupping-tool,  for  bolts,  78. 
Cutting-block,  description  of,  10. 


INDEX.  253 


Cutting  stock,  methods  of,  q. 

Cyanide  of  potassium,  for  case-hardening,  235. 

Drawing-out,  definition  and  methods  of,  5 1 . 
Drift,  use  of,  for  hammer-eyes,  213. 
Drills,  flat,  212. 

Drop-forging,  description  of,  154. 
"          ,  eye-bolt,  155. 

,  forming  dies  hot,  157. 

with  steam-hammer,  155. 
Duplicate  bending  with  block,  147. 

"         with  jig,  152. 
Duplicate  work,  146. 

Eye,  bending  of,  64. 

"  ,  weldless,  making  of,  from  flat  stock,  IOQ 
Eye-bolt,  drop-forging  of,  155. 

Files,  finish,  allowance  for,  95. 

"   ,  hardening  and  tempering  of,  187. 
Fire,  banking  of,  4. 

"   ,  building  of,  2. 

"   ,  description  of  good,  3. 

"   ,  oxidizing,  5. 

Flange,  with  boss,  forging  of,  143. 
Flux,    for  brazing,  226. 

"    ,  use  of,  in  welding,  20. 
Forge,  description  of,  i. 
Fork,  welded,  119. 
Forked  ends,  forging  of,  102,  107. 
Fullers,  description  of,  15. 
"      ,  forging  of,  220. 

Gate-hook,  making  of,  68. 

Hammers,  description  of,  10. 

"      ,  ball  pene-,  216. 

"      ,  forging  and  tempering  of,  212. 

"       ,  riveting,  214. 

"       ,  sledge,  217. 
Hardening,  laws  of,  176.     See  also  Tempering. 


254  INDEX. 

Hardie,  description  of,  7. 

"     ,  forging  of,  218. 
Heading-tool,  for  bolts,  78. 
Hook,  chain,  71. 

"    ,  gate,  68. 

"   ,  grab,  70. 

"    ,  hoisting,  75. 

"    ,  welded  eye-,  74. 
Hot-chisel,  description  of,  7. 
,  forging  of,  218. 

Iron,  cast,  making  of,  160. 
"   ,  wrought,  making  of,  163. 

Jump-weld,  35. 

Knuckles;  forging  of  various  kinds,  i  ~>2. 

Ladles,  making  of,  86. 
Ladle-shank,  forging  of  foundry,  114. 
Lathe-tools,  in  general,  200. 
"        ,  boring,  205. 
"        ,  centering,  210. 
"        ,  cutting-off,  202. 

,  diamond-points,  206. 
"        ,  finishing,  210. 
"        ,  internal-thread,  206. 
"        ,  round-nose,  201. 
,  side-finishing,  208. 
,  thread,  201. 

Machine-steel,  making  of,  165. 

"         ,  properties  of,  171,  172. 
Metallurgy  of  iron  and  steel,  159. 
Molder's  trowel,  forging  of,  117. 

Open-hearth  furnace,  167. 

steel,  making  of,  167. 
Oxide,  formation  of,  on  iron,  5 
Oxidizing  fire,  5. 
Oxygen,  effect  on  heating  iron,  .$. 


INDEX.  255 


Pipe-bending,  in  general,  226. 

,  copper,  230. 

,  different  methods,  228. 

with  jigs,  229,  231. 
Planer-tools,  see  undei  Lathe-tools. 
Pointing,  precautions  necessary,  52. 
Puddling-furnace,  163. 
Punch,  for  steam-hammer,  141. 
Punching,  method  of,  and  tools  used,  58. 
"      ,  tools  for  duplicate,  142. 

Recalescence,  description  of,  182. 
Rings,  amount  of  stock  required,  46. 

"    ,    bending  up,  63. 

'    ,    forging  under  steam-hammer,  139 

"    ,    welding   of  flat-stock,  32. 

"    ,          "         "    round-stock,  29. 

"    ,  "         "    washer,  33. 

'  ,  weldless,  making  of,  no. 
Round-nosed  chisels,  200. 

Sand,  uses  of,  as  flux,  21. 
Scarfing  for  weld,  object  of,  23. 
Set-hammer,  description  of,  14. 

,  making  of,  219. 

Shaper-tocls,  see  under  Lathe-tools. 
Shrinking,  process  of,  221. 
Sledges,  description  of,  n. 

,  forging  and  tempering  of,  217. 
Socket-wrench,  forging  of,  106. 
Spelter,  for  brazing,  224. 
Split-work,  shaping  from  thin  stock,  107. 
Spring-steel,  welding  of,  35. 
Square  corner,  forging  of,  60. 
Steam-hammer,  description  of,  120. 

,  cutting  work  under,  127. 

,  forging  taper  work  with,  130. 

,  general  notes  on,  126. 

,  tongs  for,  121. 

,  tools  and  swages  for,  129. 

,  tools  for  cutting,  123. 


256  INDEX. 

Steel,  Bessemer,  165. 
"  ,  machine  or  soft,  165. 
"  ,  open-hearth,  167. 
"  ,  tool,  169. 

Stock  calculation,  in  general,  41. 
for  circles,  46. 
"    connecting-rod,  92. 
"     curves,  44. 

"  "  "     links,  etc.,  48. 

"  "  "     simple  bends,  44. 

"     single-throw  crank,  91. 
"     weldless  ring,  no. 

Taper-work,  with  steam-hammer,  130,  145. 
Tempering,  in  general,  179. 

"       ,  bad  shapes  for,  187. 
"        ,  definition  and  methods  of,  176. 
"       ,  different  methods  of,  180,  181,  185,  188,  190. 
"       ,  heating  for,  184. 
"       ,  straightening  work  after,  186. 
"       ,  thin  flat  work,  186. 
"         to  leave  soft  center,  190. 
"       ,  see  under  individual  tools. 
Tongs,  description  and  use  of  different  kinds,  12, 
"  ,  fitting  of,  13. 

"      for  round  stock,  forging  of,  83. 
"      for  steam-hammer  work,  121. 
"  ,  forging  bolt-,  84. 

"       of   lighthand-,  81. 
"       "    pick-up,  84. 
"  ,        "      with  welded  handles,  84. 
"    ,  forging  with  steam-hammer,  133. 
Tool-forging,  in  general,  198. 

Tools,  see  under  individual  tools;  also  under  Lathe-tools. 
Tool -steel,  hardening,  173. 
"       ,  making  of,  169. 
"       ,  properties  of,  192. 
"       ,  tempering,  176. 
"       ,  "  temper  "-rating,  174. 
Trowel,  forging  of  moulders,  117. 
Truing-up  of  work,  54. 


INDEX.  257 


Truing-up  of  work  under  steam-hammer,  133. 
Tuyere,  use  and  description  of,  i. 
Twisting,  for  ornamental  work,  66. 
"     ,    "  gate-hook,  70. 

Upsetting,  definition  and  methods  of,  55. 

"Veight  of  forgings,  calculation  of,  94. 
Weld,  angle,  flat-stock,  37. 
"  ,  butt,  34. 
"  ,  chain,  19. 
"  ,  faggot  or  pile,  22. 
"  ,  flat  lap-,  24. 
"  ,  fork,  119. 
"     iron  to  steel,  36. 
"  ,  jump,  35. 
"  ,  ring,  flat  stock,  32. 
"  ,     "  ,  round  stock,  29. 
"  ,  round  lap-,  28. 
"  ,  split,  for  heavy  work,  36. 
"  ,  split,  for  light  work,  35. 
"  ,  spring-steel,  35. 
"  ,  "T",  flat  stock,  38. 
"  ,  "T",  round  stock,  39. 
"  ,  washer  or  flat  ring,  33. 
Welding,  in  general,  17. 

"    ,  allowance  of  stock  for,  39. 
"    ,  scarfing  for,  23. 
"    ,  spring-steel,  35,  40. 
"    ,  tool-steel,  39. 
"    ,  use  of  fluxes,  20. 
Wrench,  for  twisting  crank -shaft,  100. 
"     ,  forging  of  open-end,  105. 
"     ,       "       of  socket-,  106. 
Wrought  iron,  making  of,  113. 

"          "   ,  properties  of,  171,  172. 


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Lodge's  Notes  on  Assaying  and  Metallurgical  Laboratory  Experiments. ..  .8vo,  3  oo 

Lunge's  Techno-chemical  Analysis.  (Cohn.) I2mo,  i  oo 

Manders  Handbook  for  Bio-chemical  Laboratory i2mo,  i  50 

*  Martin's  Laboratory  Guide  to  Qualitative  Analysis  with  the  Blowpipe .  .  i2mo,         60 
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Matthew's  The  Textile  Fibres 8vo,    3  50 

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Miller's  Manual  of  Assaying izmo,     i  oo 

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Morgan's  Outline  of  Theory  of  Solution  and  its  Results i2mo,    i  oo 

Elements  of  Physical  Chemistry i2mo,    2  oo 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  morocco,    i  50 

Mulliken's  General  Method  for  the  Identification  of  Pure  Organic  Compounds. 

Vol.  I Large  8vo,    5  oo 

O'Brine's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  .2  oo 

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*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mireral  Tests. 

8vo,  paper,         50 

Pictet's  The  Alkaloids  and  their  Chemical  Constitution.     (Biddle.) 8vo,    5  oo 

Pinner's  Introduction  to  Organic  Chemistry.     (Austen.) I2mo,    i  50 

Poole's  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,    3  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
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4 


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Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint  8vo,    2  oo 
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*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo,     i  50 

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Non-metallic  Elements.) 8vo,  morocco,         75 

Ricketts  and  Miller's  Notes  on  Assaying 8vo,    3  oo 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,    3  50 

Disinfection  and  the  Preservation  of  Food 8vo,    4  oo 

Rigg's  Elementary  Manual  for  the  Chemical  Laboratory 8vo,     i  25 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) I2mo,     i  oo 

Ruddiman's  Incompatibilities  in  Prescriptions 8vo,    2  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo, 

Salkowski's  Physiological  and  Pathological  Chemistry.     (Orndorff.) 8vo, 

Schimpf's  Text-book  of  Volumetric  Analysis I2mo, 

Essentials  of  Volumetric  Analysis i2mo, 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses i6mo,  morocco, 

Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturers  and  their  Chemists.  .i6mo,  morocco, 
Stockbridge's  Rocks  and  Soils 8vo, 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo, 

*  Descriptive  General  Chemistry 8vo, 

Treadwell's  Qualitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo, 

Quantitative  Analysis.     (Hall.) 8vo, 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo, 

Van  Deventer's  Physical  Chemistry  for  Beginners.     (Boltwood.) I2mo, 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8~o, 

Washington's  Manual  of  the  Chemical  Analysis  of  Rocks 8-0, 

Wassermann's  Immune  Sera :  Haemolysins,  Cytotoxins,  and  Precipitins.    (Bol- 
duan.)   I2IT1O,      I    OO 

Well's  Laboratory  Guide  in  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis 8vo,  i  50 

Short  Course  in  Inorganic  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis  for  Engineering 

Students i2mo,  i  50 

Text-book  of  Chemical  Arithmetic i2mo,  i  25 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes I2mo,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process I2mo,  i  50 

Wulling's    Elementary    Course    in  Inorganic,  Pharmaceutical,  and  Medical 

Chemistry I2mo,  2  oo 

CIVIL  ENGINEERING. 

BRIDGES    AND    ROOFS.       HYDRAULICS.       MATERIALS    OF    ENGINEERING. 
RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Engineers'  Surveying  Instruments I2mo,  3  oo 

Bixby's  Graphical  Computing  Table Paper  igjX24i  inches.  25 

**  Burr's  Ancient  and  Modern  Engineering  and  the  Isthmian  Canal.     (Postage, 

27  cents  additional.) 8vo,  3  50 

Comstock's  Field  Astronomy  for  Engineers 8vo,  2  50 

Davis's  Elevation  and  Stadia  Tables 8vo,  i  oo 

Elliott's  Engineering  for  Land  Drainage I2mo,  i  50 

Practical  Farm  Drainage I2mo,  i  oo 

*Fiebeger's  Treatis*  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  5  oo 

Folwell's  Sewerage.     (Designing  and  Maintenance.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Freitag's  Architectural  Engineering.     2d  Edition,  Rewritten 8vo,  3  50 

French  and  Ives's  Stereotomy 8vo,  2  50 

Goodhue's  Municipal  Improvements I2mo,  i  75 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Towns'  Refuse 8vo,  3  50 

Gore's  Elements  of  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Hayford's  Text-book  of  Geodetic  Astronomy 8vo,  3  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  moroccoi  2  50 

5 


Howe's  Retaining  Walls  for  Earth i2mo,  i  25 

Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Theory  and  Practice  of  Surveying Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Algebraic  and  Graphic  Methods 8vo,  2  oo 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.    (Truscott  and  Emory.) .  i2mo,  2  oo 

Marian's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering.     (1873.)     (Wood.) 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  i  50 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Precise  Surveying  and  Geodesy 8vo,  2  50 

Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  oo 

Merriman  and  Brooks's  Handbook  for  Surveyors i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

Nugent's  Plane  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design 1 2mo,  2  oo 

Patton's  Treatise  on  Civil  Engineering 8vo  half  leather,  7  50 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  the  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewa{_<; 8vo,  3  50 

Siebert  and  Biggin's  Modern  Stone-cutting  and  Masonry 8vo,  i  50 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan. i 8vo,  2  50 

Sondericker's  Graphic  Statics,  with  Applications  to  Trusses,  Beams,  and  Arches. 

8vo,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Trautwine's  Civil  Engineer's  Pocket-book i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo  6  oo 


Sheep 


6  50 


Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engireerirg  and  Archi- 
tecture  8vo  5  oo 

Sheep  5  50 

Law  of  Contracts • 8vo  3  oo 

Warren's  Stereotomy — Problems  in  Stone-cutting 8vo,  2  50 

Webb's  Problems  in  the  Use  and  Adjustment  of  Engineering  Instruments. 

i6mo,  morocco,  i   25 

*  Wheeler  s  Elementary  Course  of  Civil  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

Wilson's  Topographic  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

BRIDGES  AND  ROOFS. 

Boiler's  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  of  Iron  Highway  Bridges.  .  8vo,  2  oo 

*  Thames  River  Bridge 4to,  paper,  5  oo 

Burr's  Course  on  the  Stresses  in  Bridges  and  Roof  Trusses,  Arched  Ribs,  and 

Suspension  Bridges 8vo,  3  50 

Burr  and  Falk's  Influence  Lines  for  Bridge  and  Roof  Computations.  .  .  .8vo,  3  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  II Small  4to,  10  oo 

Foster's  Treatise  on  Wooden  Trestle  Bridges 4to,  5  oo 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Greene's  Roof  Trusses 8vo,  i  25 

Bridge  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

Arches  in  Wood,  Iron,  and  Stone 8vo,  2  50 

Howe's  Treatise  on  Arches 8vo,  4  oo 

Design  of  Simple  Roof-trusses  in  Wood  and  Steel 8vo,  2  oo 

Johnson,  Bryan,  and  Turneaure's  Theory  and  Practice  in  the  Designing  of 

Modern  Framed  Structures Small  4to,  10  oo 

Merriman  and  Jacoby's  Text-book  on  Roofs  and  Bridges: 

Part  I.     Stresses  in  Simple  Trusses 8vo,  2  50 

Part  n.     Graphic  Statics 8vo,  2  50 

Part  HI.     Bridge  Design 8vo,  2  50 

Part  IV.     Higher  Structures 8vo,  2  50 

Morison's  Memphis  Bridge 4t°»  10  oo 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus,  a  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Specifications  for  Steel  Bridges I2mo.  i  25 

Wood's  Treatise  on  the  Theory  of  the  Construction  of  Bridges  and  Roofs .  .  8vo,  2  CO 
Wright's  Designing  of  Draw-spans : 

Part  I.     Plate-girder  Draws 8vo,  2  50 

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Two  parts  in  one  volume 8vo,  3  50 

6 


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an  Orifice.     (Trautwine.) 8vo,  2  oo 

Bovoy's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Diagrams  of  Mean  Velocity  of  Water  in  Open  Channels paper,  i  50 

Coffin's  Graphical  Solution  of  Hydraulic  Problems i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power I2mo,  3  oo 

Folwell's  Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

FrizelPs  Water-power 8vo,  5  oo 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health i2mo,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works i2mo,  2  50 

Ganguillet  and  Kutter's  General  Formula  for  the  Uniform  Flow  of  Water  in 

Rivers  and  Other  Channels.     (Hering  and  Trautwine.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supply .8vo,  3  oo 

Hazlehurst's  Towers  and  Tanks  for  Water-works 8vo,  2  50 

Herschel's  115  Experiments  on  the  Carrying  Capacity  of  Large,  Riveted,  Metal 

Conduits. 8vo,  2  oo 

Mason's  Water-supply.     (Considered  Principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint.) 

8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Treatise  on  Hydraulics 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Schuyler's   Reservoirs  for   Irrigation,   Water-power,   and   Domestic   Water- 
supply Large  8vo,  5  oo 

**  Thomas  and  Watt's  Improvement  of  Rivers.     (Post.,  440.  additional. ).4to,  6  oo 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Wegmann's  Design  and  Construction  of  Dams 4to,  5  oo 

Water-supply  of  the  City  of  New  York  from  1658  to  1895 4to,  10  oo 

Williams  and  Hazen's  Hydraulic  Tables.  .  .  .  .• 8vo,  i  50 

Wilson's  Irrigation  Engineering Small  8vo,  4  oo 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Turbines 8vo,  2  50 

Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING. 

Baker's  Treatise  »n  Masonry  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Roads  and  Pavements 8vo,  5  oo 

Black's  United  States  Public  Works Oblong  4to,  5  oo 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering 8vo,  7  50 

Byrne's  Highway  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Inspection  of  the  Materials  and  Workmanship  Employed  in  Construction. 

i6mo,  3  oo 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

Du  Bois's  Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.  I Small  4to,  7  50 

*Eckei's  Cements,  Limes,  and  Plasters 8vo,  6  oo 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction Large  8vo,  6  oo 

Fowler's  Ordinary  Foundations 8vo,  3  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Marten's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.)     2  vols 8vo,  7  50 

Merrill's  Stones  for  Building  and  Decoration 8vo,  5  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials.                                 8vo,  5  oo 

Strength  of  Materials I2mo,  i  oo 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users I2mo,  2  oo 

Patton's  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundations 8vo,  5  oo 

Richardson's  Modern  Asphalt  Pavements 8vo,  3  oo 

Richey's  Handbook  for  Superintendents  of  Construction i6mo,  mor.,  4  oo 

Rockwell's  Roads  and  Pavements  in  France I2mo,  i  25 

7 


Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines I2mo,  i  oo 

Snow's  Principal  Species  of  Wood 8vo,  3  50 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement i2mo,  2  oo 

Text-book  on  Roads  and  Pavements I2mo,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     3  Parts 8vo,  8  oo 

Part  I.     Non-metallic  Materials  of  Engineering  and  Metallurgy 8vo,  2  oo 

Part  II.     Iron  and  Steel 8vo,  3  50 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  5  oo 

Tillson's  Street  Pavements  and  Paving  Materials 8vo,  4  oo 

Waddell's  De  Pontibus.    (*  Pocket-book  for  Bridge  Engineers.)-  .i6mo,  mor.,  3  oo 

Specifications  for  St*.  i  Bridges lamo,  i  25 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials,  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preservation  of  Timber 8vo,  2  oo 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood'-  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Steel. 8vo,  4  oo 

RAILWAY  ENGINEERING. 

Andrew's  Handbook  for  Street  Railway  Engineers 3x5  inches,  morocco,  i  25 

Berg's  Buildings  and  Structures  of  American  Railroads 4to,  5  oo 

Brook's  Handbook  of  Street  Railroad  Location. i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Butt's  Civil  Engineer's  Field-book i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Crandall's  Transition  Curve i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Railway  and  Other  Earthwork  Tables 8vo,  i  50 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Dredge's  History  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad:   (1879) Paper,  5  oo 

*  Drinker's  Tunnelling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills. 4to,  half  mor.,  25  oo 

Fisher's  Table  of  Cubic  Yards Cardboard,  25 

Godwin's  Railroad  Engineers'  Field-book  and  Explorers'  Guide.  .  .  i6mo,  mor.,  2  50 

Howard's  Transition  Curve  Field-book i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Hudson's  Tables  for  Calculating  the  Cubic  Contents  of  Excavations  and  Em- 
bankments  8vo,  i  oo 

Mo  lit  or  and  Beard's  Manual  for  Resident  Engineers i6mo,  i  oo 

Nagle's  Field  Manual  for  Railroad  Engineers i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Philbrick's  Field  Manual  for  Engineers i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Searles's  Field  Engineering i6mo,  morocco,  3  oo 

Railroad  Spiral i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Taylor's  Prismoidal  Formulae  and  Earthwork 8vo,  i  50 

*  Trautwine's  Method  of  Calculating  the  Cube  Contents  of  Excavations  and 

Embankments  by  the  Aid  of  Diagrams 8vo,  2  oo 

The  Field  Practice  of  Laying  Out  Circular  Curves  for  Railroads. 

\          ,        i2mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Cross-section  Sheet Paper,  25 

Webb's  Railroad  Construction i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Wellington's  Economic  Theory  of  the  Location  of  Railways Small  8vo,  5  oo 

DRAWING. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

*  . "                    "                    "        Abridged  Ed 8vo,  i  50 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper  i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  Engi- 
neers  •. Oblong  4to,  2  50 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Project! ve  Geometry  and  its  Applications 8vo.  2  50 

8 


Hill's  Text-book  on  Shades  and  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  2  oo 

Jamison's  Elements  of  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Advanced  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

MacCord's  Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  3  oo 

Kinematics;  or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i   50 

*  Mahan's  Descriptive  Geometry  and  Stone-cutting 8vo,  i  50 

Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

Meyer's  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  oo 

Reed's  Topographical  Drawing  and  Sketching 4to,  5  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo* 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Manual  of  Topographical  Drawing.     (McMillan.) 8vo,  2  50 

Warren's  Elements  of  Plane  and  Solid  Free-hand  Geometrical  Drawing.  i2mo,  i  oo 

Drafting  Instruments  and  Operations I2moi  i  25 

Manual  of  Elementary  Projection  Drawing I2mo,  i  5* 

Manual  of  Elementary  Problems  in  the  Linear  Perspective  of  Form  and 

Shadow ' I2mo,  i  oo 

Plane  Problems  in  Elementary  Geometry I2mo,  i  25 

Primary  Geometry I2mo,  75 

Elements  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  Shadows,  and  Perspective 8vo,  3  50 

General  Problems  of  Shades  and  Shadows 8vo,  3  oo 

Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

Problems,  Theorems,  and  Examples  in  Descriptive  Geometry 8vo,  2  50 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  Power  of  Transmission.    (Hermann  and  Klein)8vo,  5  oo 

Whelpley's  Practical  Instruction  in  the  Ait  of  Letter  Engraving i2mo,  2  oo 

Wilson's  (H.  M.)  Topographic  Surveying 8vo,  3  50 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Perspective 8vo,  2  50 

Wilson's  (V.  T.)  Free-hand  Lettering 8vo,  i  oo 

Woolf's  Elementary  Course  in  Descriptive  Geometry Large  8vo,  3  oo 


ELECTRICITY  AND  PHYSICS. 

Anthony  and  Brackett's  Text-book  of  Physics.     (Magie.) Small  8vo,  3  oo 

Anthony's  Lecture-notes  on  the  Theory  of  Electrical  Measurements.  .  .  .I2mo,  i  oo 

Benjamin's  History  of  Electricity 8vo,  3  oo 

Voltaic  Cell 8vo,  3  oo 

Classen's  Quantitative  Chemical  Analysis  by  Electrolysis.     (Boltwood.).Svo,  3  oo 

Crehore  and  Squier's  Polarizing  Photo-chronograph 8vo,  3  oo 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  i6mo,  morocco,  5  oa 
Dolezalek's   Theory   of   the   Lead   Accumulator    (Storage    Battery).      (Von 

Ende.) 1 2mo,  2  50 

Duhem's  Thermodynamics  and  Chemistry.     (Burgess.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power iamo,  3  oo 

Gilbert's  De  Magnete.     (Mottelay.) 8vo,  2  50 

Hanchett's  Alternating  Currents  Explained I2mo,  i  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Holman's  Precision  of  Measurements 8vo,  2  oo 

Telescopic   Mirror-scale  Method,  Adjustments,  and  Tests.  .  .  .Large  8vo,  75 

Kinzbrunner's  Testing  of  Continuous-Current  Machines 8vo,  2  oo 

Landauer's  Spectrum  Analysis.     (Tingle.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Le  Chatelien's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard — Burgess.)  I2mo.  3  oo 

Lob's  Electrolysis  and  Electrosynthesis  of  Organic  Compounds.  (Lorenz.)  i2mo,  i  oo 

9 


*  Lyons's  Treatise  on  Electromagnetic  Phenomena.  Vols.  I.  and  II.  8vo,  each,  6  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Wave  Motion  Relating  to  Sound  and  Light 8vo,  4  oo 

Niaudet's  Elementary  Treatise  on  Electric  Batteries.     (Fishback.) iimo,  2  50 

*  Rosenberg's  Electrical  Engineering.     (Haldane  Gee — Kinzbrunner.).  .   8vo,  i  50 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     Vol.  1 8vo,  2  50 

Thurston's  Stationary  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

*  Tillman's  Elementary  Lessons  in  Heat 8vo,  i  50 

Tory  and  Pitcher's  Manual  of  Laboratory  Physics Small  8vo,  2  oo 

Ulke's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

LAW. 

*  Davis's  Elements  of  Law 8vo,  2  50 

*  Treatise  on  the  Military  Law  of  United  States 8vo,  7  oo 

*  Sheep,  7  50 

Manual  for  Courts-martiaL i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

Wait's  Engineering  and  Architectural  Jurisprudence 8vo,  6  oo 

Sheep,  6  50 

Law  of  Operations  Preliminary  to  Construction  in  Engineering  and  Archi- 
tecture  8vo,  5  oo 

Sheep,  5  50 

Law  of  Contracts 8vo,  3  oo 

Winthrop's  Abridgment  of  Military  Law 121110,  2  50 

MANUFACTURES. 

Bernadou's  Smokeless  Powder — Nitro-cellulose  and  Theory  of  the  Cellulose 

Molecule I2mo,  2  5* 

Holland's  Iron  Founder 1 2ino,  a  50 

"  The  Iron  Founder,"  Supplement izmo,  2  50 

Encyclopedia  of  Founding  and  Dictionary  of  Foundry  Terms  Used  in  the 

Practice  of  Moulding I2mo,  3  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Effront's  Enzymes  and  their  Applications.     (Prescott.) 8vo,  3  oo 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist I2mo,  i  oo 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers i8mo,  i  oo 

Hopkin's  Oil-chemists'  Handbook 8vo,  3  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  F«od  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

ControL Large  8vo,  7  50 

Matthews's  The  Textile  Fibres 8vo,  3  50 

Metcalf's  Steel.     A  Manual  for  Steel-users i2mo,  2  oo 

Metcalfe's  Cost  of  Manufactures — And  the  Administration  of  Workshops  8vo,  3  oo 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  oo 

Morse's  Calculations  used  in  Cane-sugar  Factories i6mo,  morocco,  i  50 

*  Reisig's  Guide  to  Piece-dyeing 8vo,  25  oo 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Spalding's  Hydraulic  Cement I2tno,  2  oo 

Spencer's  Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses.    ...  i6mo,  morocco,  300 

Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturers  and  their  Chemists.  .  i6mo,  morocco,  2  oo 

Taylor  and  Thompson's  Treatise  on  Concrete,  Plain  and  Reinforced 8vo,  5  oo 

Thurston's  Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction  and  Opera- 
tion  8vo,  5  oo 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Ware's  Manufacture  of  Sugar.     (In  press.) 

West's  American  Foundry  Practice I2mo,  2  50 

Moulder's  Text-book. 12010,  2  50 

10 


Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,    3  oo 

Wood's  Rustless  Coatings:   Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and  Steel.  .8vo,    4  oo 


MATHEMATICS. 

Baker's  Elliptic  Functions 8vo,  I  59 

*  Bass's  Elements  of  Differential  Calculus I2mo,  4  oo 

Briggs's  Elements  of  Plane  Analytic  Geometry i2mo,  i  oo 

Campion's  Manual  of  Logarithmic  Computations I2mo,  i  50 

Davis's  Introduction  to  the  Logic  of  Algebra 8vo,  i  50 

*  Dickson's  College  Algebra Large  I2mo,  i  50 

*  Introduction  to  the  Theory  of  Algebraic  Equations Large  I2mo,  i  25 

Emch's  Introduction  to  Projective  Geometry  and  its  Applications 8vo,  2  50 

Halsted's  Elements  of  Geometry 8vo,  i   75 

Elementary  Synthetic  Geometry. „ 8vo,  i  50 

Rational  Geometry i2mo,  i  75 

*  Johnson's  (J.  B.)  Three-place  Logarithmic  Tables:   Vest-pocket  size. paper,  15 

100  copies  for  5  oo 

*  Mounted  on  heavy  cardboard,  8X 10  inches,  25 

10  copies  for  2  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Elementary  Treatise  on  Differential  Calculus.  . Small  8vo,  3  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Integral  Calculus. Small  8vo,  i  50 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Curve  Tracing  in  Cartesian  Co-ordinates I2mo,  i  oo 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Treatise  .on  Ordinary  and  Partial  Differential  Equations. 

Small  8vo,  3  50 

Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theory  of  Errors  and  the  Method  of  Least  Squares.  I2mo,  i  50 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics 1200,  3  oo 

Laplace's  Philosophical  Essay  on  Probabilities.     (Truscott  and  Emory.) .  i2mo,  2  oo 

*  Ludlow  and  Bass.     Elements  of  Trigonometry  and  Logarithmic  and  Other 

Tables 8vo,  3  oo 

Trigonometry  and  Tables  published  separately Each,  2  oo 

*  Ludlow's  Logarithmic  and  Trigonometric  Tables 8vo,  r  oo 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman  and  Woodward's  Higher  Mathematics 8vo,  5  oo 

Merriman's  Method  of  Least  Squares 8vo,  2  oo 

Rice  and  Johnson's  Elementary  Treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus. .  Sm.  8vo,  3  oo 

Differential  and  Integral  Calculus.     2  vols.  in  one Small  8vo,  2  50 

Wood's  Elements  of  Co-ordinate  Geometry 8vo,  2  oo 

Trigonometry:  Analytical,  Plane,  and  Spherical i2mo,  i  oo 


MECHANICAL  ENGINEERING. 

MATERIALS  OF  ENGINEERING,  STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Bacon's^ Forge  Practice 1 21110,  i  50 

Baldwin's  Steam  Heating  for  Buildings I2mo,  2  50 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery. 8vo,  2  50 

*  Bartlett's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  3  oo 

*  "  "        Abridged  Ed " 8vo,     i  50 

Benjamin's  Wrinkles  and  Recipes I2mo,    2  oo 

Carpenter's  Experimental  Engineering 8vo,    6  oo 

Heating  and  Ventilating  Buildings 8vo,    4  oo 

Cary's  Smoke  Suppression  in  Plants  using  Bituminous  Coal.     (In  Prepara- 
tion.) 

Clerk's  Gas  and  Oil  Engine Small  8vo,    4  oo 

Coolidge's  Manual  of  Drawing 8vo,  paper,     i  oo 

Coolidge  and  Freeman's  Elements  of  General  Drafting  for  Mechanical  En- 
gineers  Oblong  4to,    2  50 

11 


Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing I2mo,  i  50 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys 121110,  i  50 

Dtirley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers  and  the  Measurement  of  Power I2mo,  3  oo 

Rope  Driving 12010,  2  oo 

Gill's  Gas  and  Fuel  Analysis  for  Engineers i2mo,  i  25 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo,  i  oo 

Bering's  Ready  Reference  Tables  (Conversion  Factors) i6mo,  morocco,  2  50 

Button's  The  Gas  Engine 8vo,  5  oo 

Jamison's  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  50 

Jones's  Machine  Design: 

Part  I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  IL     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vo,  3  oo 

Kent's  Mechanical  Engineers'  Pocket-book i6mo,  morocco,  5  oo 

Kerr's  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oo 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods 8vo,  4  oo 

*Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.     (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean. ).  .8vo,  4  oo 

MacCord's  Kinematics;   or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Mechanical  Drawing 4to,  4  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i  50 

Mahan's  Industrial  Drawing.     (Thompson.) 8vo,  3  50 

Poole  s  Calorific  Power  of  Fuels 8vo,  3  oo 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8vo,  3  oo 

Richard's  Compressed  Air I2mo,  i   50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's   Treatise    on   Friction  and   Lost   Work   in   Machinery   and    Mill 

Work 8vo,  3  oo 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws  of  Energetics.  1 2 mo,  i  oo 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo,  7  50 

Weisbach's    Kinematics    and    the    Power    of    Transmission.     (Herrmann — 

Klein.) -.  .  8vo,  5  oo 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.     (Herrmann — Klein.).  .8vo,  5  oo 

Wolff's  Windmill  as  a  Prime  Mover 8vo,  3  oo 

Wood's  Turbines ..8vo,  2  50 


MATERIALS   OF    ENGINEERING. 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Burr's  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  the  Materials  of  Engineering.    6th  Edition. 

Reset 8vo,  7  50 

Church's  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8 vo,  6  oo 

Johnson's  Materials  of  Construction 8vo,  6  oo 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,'  2  50 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics Svo,  7  50 

Martens's  Handbook  on  Testing  Materials.     (Henning.) Svo,  7  50 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials.                               Svo,  5  oo 

Strength  of  Materials I2mo,  i  oo 

Metcalf 's  Steel.     A  manual  for  Steel-users I2mo.  2  »o 

Sabin's  Industrial  and  Artistic  Technology  of  Paints  and  Varnish Svo,  3  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines I2mo,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering 3  vols,,  Svo,  8  oo 

Part  II.     Iren  and  Steel. Svo,  3  50 

Part  HI.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents Svo,  2  50 

Text-book  of  the  Materials  of  Construction. 8vo,  5  oo 

12 


Wood's  (De  V.)  Treatise  on  the  Resistance  of  Materials  and  an  Appendix  on 

the  Preseivation  of  Timber 8vo,    2  oo 

Wood's  (De  V.)  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,    3  oo 

Wood's  (M.  P.)  Rustless  Coatings:    Corrosion  and  Electrolysis  of  Iron  and 

Ste«L  ...  8vo,    4  oo 


STEAM-ENGINES  AND  BOILERS. 

Berry's  Temperature-entropy  Diagram I2mo,  i  25 

Carnot's  Reflections  on  the  Motive  Power  of  Heat.     (Thurston.) I2mo,  i  50 

Dawson's  "Engineering"  and  Electric  Traction  Pocket-book.  .  .  .i6mo,  mor.,  5  oo 

Ford's  Boiler  Making  for  Boiler  Makers i8mo,  i  oo 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

Hemenway's  Indicator  Practice  and  Steam-engine  Economy I2mo,  2  oo 

Button's  Mechanical  Engineering  of  Power  Plants 8vo,  5  oo 

Heat  and  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  oo 

Kent's  Steam  boiler  Economy 8vo,  4  oo 

Kneass's  Practice  and  Theory  of  the  Injector 8vo,  i  50 

MacCord's  Slide-valves 8vo,  2  oo 

Meyer's  Modern  Locomotive  Construction 4to,  10  oo 

Peabody's  Manual  of  the  Steam-engine  Indicator 121110.  i  50 

Tables  of  the  Properties  of  Saturated  Steam  and  Other  Vapors 8vo,  i  oo 

Thermodynamics  of  the  Steam-eagine  and  Other  Heat-engines 8vo,  5  oo 

Valve-gears  for  Steam-engines 8vo,  2  50 

Peabody  and  Miller's  Steam-boilers 8v»,  4  oo 

Pray's  Twenty  Years  with  the  Indicator Large  8vo,  2  50 

Pupin's  Thermodynamics  of  Reversible  Cycles  in  Gases  and  Saturated  Vapors. 

(Osterberg.) i2mo,  i  25 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple  Compound,  and  Electric i2mo,  2  50 

Rontgen's  Principles  of  Thermodynamics.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Sinclair's  Locomotive  Engine  Running  and  Management 12010,  2  oo 

Smart's  Handbook  of  Engineering  Laboratory  Practice lamo,  2  50 

Snow's  Steam-boiler  Practice 8vo,  3  oo 

Spangler's  Valve-gears 8vo,  2  50 

Notes  on  Thermodynamics 1 21110,  i  oo 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's  Handy  Tables 8vo.  i  50 

Manual  of  the  Steam-engine 2  vols.,  8vo,  10  oo 

Part  I.     History,  Structure,  and  Theory 8vo,  6  oo 

Part  II.     Design,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  6  oo 

Handbook  of  Engine  and  Boiler  Trials,  and  the  Use  of  the  Indicator  and 

the  Prony  Brake STO,  5  oo 

Stationary  Steam-engines ' 8vo,  2  50 

Steam-boiler  Explosions  in  Theory  and  in  Practice I2mo,  i  50 

Manual  of  Steam-boilers,  their  Designs,  Construction,  and  Operation 8vo,  5  oo 

Weisbach's  Heat,  Steam,  and  Steam-engines.     (Du  Bois.) 8vo,  5  oo 

Whitham's  Steam-engine  Design 8vo,  5  oo 

Wilson's  Treatise  on  Steam-boilers.     (Flather.) i6mo,  2  50 

Wood's  Thermodynamics,  Heat  Motors,  and  Refrigerating  Machines. .  .8vo,  4  oo 


MECHANICS  AND  MACHINERY. 

Barr's  Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  2  50 

Bovey's  Strength  of  Materials  and  Theory  of  Structures 8vo,  7  50 

Chase's  The  Art  of  Pattern-making ,. . .  .  i2mo,  2  50 

Churches  Mechanics  of  Engineering 8vo,  6  oo 

18 


Church's  Notes  and  Examples  in  Mechanics 8vo,  2  oo 

Compton's  First  Lessons  in  Metal-working izmo,  i  50 

Compton  and  De  Groodt's  The  Speed  Lathe 12010,  i  50 

Cromwell's  Treatise  on  Toothed  Gearing i2mo,  :  50 

Treatise  on  Belts  and  Pulleys i2mo,  i  50 

Dana's  Text-book  of  Elementary  Mechanics  for  Colleges  and  Schools.  .I2mo,  i  50 

Dingey's  Machinery  Pattern  Making i2mo,  2  oo 

Dredge's  Record  of  the  Transportation  Exhibits  Building  of  the  World's 

Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to  half  morocco,  5  oo 

Du  Bois's  Elementary  Principles  of  Mechanics: 

VoL     I.     Kinematics 8vo,  3  50 

Vol.    II.     Statics 8vo,  4  oo 

VoL  III.     Kinetics 8vo,  3  50 

Mechanics  of  Engineering.     Vol.    I Small  4to,  7  50 

VoL  II Small  4to  ,1000 

Durley's  Kinematics  of  Machines 8vo,  4  oo 

Fitzgerald's  Boston  Machinist i6mo,  i  oo 

Flather's  Dynamometers,  and  the  Measurement  of  Power izmo,  3  oo 

Rope  Driving lamo,  2  oo 

Goss's  Locomotive  Sparks 8vo,  2  oo 

Hall's  Car  Lubrication i2mo,  i  oo 

Holly's  Art  of  Saw  Filing i8mo,  75 

James's  Kinematics  of  a  Point  and  the  Rational  Mechanics  of  a  Particle.  Sm.8vo,2  oo 

*  Johnson's  (W.  W.)  Theoretical  Mechanics 1 2010,  3  oo 

Johnson's  (L.  J.)  Statics  by  Graphic  and  Algebraic  Methods 8vo,  2  oo 

Jones's  Machine  Design : 

Part   I.     Kinematics  of  Machinery 8vo,  i  50 

Part  II.     Form,  Strength,  and  Proportions  of  Parts 8vc,  3  oo 

Kerrrs  Power  and  Power  Transmission 8vo,  2  oo 

Lanza's  Applied  Mechanics 8vo,  7  50 

Leonard's  Machine  Shop,  Tools,  and  Methods 8vo,  4  oo 

*Lorenz's  Modern  Refrigerating  Machinery.      (Pope,  Haven,  and  Dean.). 8vo,  4  oo 

MacCord's  Kinematics;  or,  Practical  Mechanism 8vo,  5  oo 

Velocity  Diagrams 8vo,  i  50 

Maurer's  Technical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Merriman's  Mechanics  of  Materials 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Elements  of  Mechanics i2mo,  i  oo 

*  Michie's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo,  4  oo 

Reagan's  Locomotives:  Simple,  Compound,  and  Electric i2mo,  2  50 

Reid's  Course  in  Mechanical  Drawing 8vo,  2  oo 

Text-book  of  Mechanical  Drawing  and  Elementary  Machine  Design. 8 vo,  3  oo 

Richards's  Compressed  Air I2mo,  i  50 

Robinson's  Principles  of  Mechanism. 8vo,  3  oo 

Ryan,  Norris,  and  Hoxie's  Electrical  Machinery.     VoL  1 8vo,  2  50 

Schwamb  and  Merrill's  Elements  of  Mechanism 8vo,  3  oo 

Sinclair's  Locomotive-engine  Running  and  Management I2mo,  2  oo 

Smith's  (O.)  Press-working  of  Metals 8vo,  3  oo 

Smith's  (A.  W.)  Materials  of  Machines i2ino,  i  oo 

Spangler,  Greene,  and  Marshall's  Elements  of  Steam-engineering 8vo,  3  oo 

Thurston's  Treatise  on  Friction  and  Lost  Y/ork  in    Machinery  and    Mill 

Work 8vo,  3  oo 

Animal  as  a  Machine  and  Prime  Motor,  and  the  Laws. of  Energetics. 

I2mo,  I   OO 

Warren's  Elements  of  Machine  Construction  and  Drawing 8vo, 

Weisbach's  Kinematics  and  Power  of  Transmission.   (Herrmann — Klein. ) .  8vo, 

Machinery  of  Transmission  and  Governors.      (Herrmann — Klein. ).8vo. 
Wood's  Elements  of  Analytical  Mechanics 8vo, 

Principles  of  Elementary  Mechanics I2mo, 

Turbines 8vo. 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4to, 

14 


METALLURGY. 

Egleston's  Metallurgy  of  Silver,  Gold,  and  Mercury: 

VoL    I.     Silver 8vo,  7  50 

Vol.  U.     Gold  and  Mercury 8vo,  7  50 

**  Iles's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  9  cents  additional.) I2mo,  2  50 

Keep's  Cast  Iron 8vo,  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe 8vo,  I  go 

Le  Chatelier's  High-temperature  Measurements.  (Boudouard — Burgess.  )i2mo,  3  oo 

Metcalf' s  SteeL     A  Manual  for  Steel-users     i2tno,  2  oo 

Smith's  Materials  of  Machines I2mo,  i  oo 

Thurston's  Materials  of  Engineering.     In  Three  Parts 8vo  8  oo 

Part    U.     Iron  and  SteeL 8vo.  3  50 

Part  III.     A  Treatise  on  Brasses,  Bronzes,  and  Other  Alloys  and  their 

Constituents 8vo.  2  50 

Hike's  Modern  Electrolytic  Copper  Refining 8vo,  3  oo 

MINERALOGY. 

Barringer's  Description  of  Minerals  of  Commercial  Value.    Oblong,  morocco,  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo,  3  oo 

Map  of  Southwest  Virignia Pocket-book  form.  2  oo 

Brush's  Manual  of  Determinative  Mineralogy.     (Penfield.) 8vo,  4  oo 

Chester's  Catalogue  of  Minerals 8vo,  paper,  i  oo 

Cloth,  i  25 

Dictionary  of  the  Names  of  Minerals 8vo,  3  50 

Dana's  System  of  Mineralogy Large  8vo,  half  leather,  12  50 

First  Appendix  to  Dana's  New  "  System  of  Mineralogy." Large  8vo,  i  oo 

Text-book  of  Mineralogy 8vo,  4  oo 

Minerals  and  How  to  Study  Them 12010,  i  50 

Catalogue  of  American  Localities  of  Minerals Large  8vo,  i  oo 

Manual  of  Mineralogy  and  Petrography i2mo ,  2  oo 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects tamo,  i  oo 

Eakle's  Mineral  Tables 8vo,  i  25 

Egleston's  Catalogue  of  Minerals  and  Synonyms 8vo,  2  50 

Hussak's  The  Determination  of  Rock-forming  Minerals.    (Smith.). Small  8vo,  2  oo 

Merrill's  Non-metallic  Minerals:  Their  Occurrence  and  Uses 8vo,  4  oo 

*  Penfield's  Notes  on  Determinative  Mineralogy  and  Record  of  Mineral  Tests. 

8vo.  paper,  o  50 
Rosenbusch's   Microscopical  Physiography   of   the   Rock-making  Minerals. 

(Iddings.) 8vo,  5  oo 

*  Tillman's  Text-book  of  Important  Minerals  and  Rocks 8vo,  2  oo 

Williams's  Manual  of  Lithology 8vo,  3  oo 

MINING. 

Beard's  Ventilation  of  Mines I2mo.  2  50 

Boyd's  Resources  of  Southwest  Virginia 8vo,  3  oo 

Map  of  Southwest  Virginia Pocket  book  form,  2  oo 

Douglas's  Untechnical  Addresses  on  Technical  Subjects I2mo.  i  oo 

*  Drinker's  Tunneling,  Explosive  Compounds,  and  Rock  Drills .  .  4to.  hf .  mor. .  25  oo 

Eissler's  Modern  High  Explosives 8vo.  4  oo 

Fowler's  Sewage  Works  Analyses I2mo,  2  oo 

Goodyear's  Coal-mines  of  the  Western  Coast  of  the  United  States i2mo .  2  50 

Ihlseng's  Manual  of  Mining 8vo.  5  oo 

**  Iles's  Lead-smelting.     (Postage  gc.  additional.) ~. 12010.  2  50 

Kunhardt's  Practice  of  Ore  Dressing  in  Europe 8ro.  i  go 

O'DriscoU's  Notes  on  the  Treatment  of  Gold  Ores. 8vo.  2  oo 

*  Walke's  Lectures  on  Explosives 8vo,  4  oo 

Wilson's  Cyanide  Processes ..„ izmo.,  i  50 

Chlorination  Process ...izmo,  i  50 

16 


Wilson's  Hydraulic  and  Placer  Mining I2mo,  2  oo 

Treatise  on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Mine  Ventilation t2mo,  i   25 

SANITARY  SCIENCE. 

Bashore's  Sanitation  of  a  Country  House I2mo,  i  oo 

FolwelTs  Sewerage.     (Designing,  Construction,  and  Maintenance.). 8vo,  3  o» 

Water-supply  Engineering 8vo,  4  oo 

Fuertes's  Water  and  Public  Health. izmo,  i  50 

Water-filtration  Works I2mo,  2  50 

Gerhard's  Guide  to  Sanitary  House-inspection i6mo,  i  oo 

Goodrich's  Economic  Disposal  of  Town's  Refuse Demy  8vo,  3  50 

Hazen's  Filtration  of  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  3  oo 

Leach's  The  Inspection  and  Analysis  of  Food  with  Special  Reference  to  State 

Control 8vo,  7  50 

Mason's  Water-supply.  (Considered  principally  from  a  Sanitary  Standpoint)  8vo,  4  oo 

Examination  of  Water.     (Chemical  and  Bacteriological.) izmo,  i  25 

Merriman's  Elements  of  Sanitary  Engineering 8vo,  2  oo 

Ogden's  Sewer  Design I2mo,  2  oo 

Prescott  and  Winslow's  Elements  of  Water  Bacteriology,  with  Special  Refer- 
ence to  Sanitary  Water  Analysis I2mo,  i  25 

*  Price's  Handbook  on  Sanitation I2mo,  i  50 

Richards's  Cost  of  Food.     A  Study  in  DUtaries xarno,  i  oo 

Cost  of  Living  as  Modified  by  Sanitaiy  Science I2mo,  i  oo 

Richards  and  Woodman's  Air,  Water,  and  Food  from  a  Sanitary  Stand- 
point  8vo,  2  oo 

*  Richards  and  Williams's  The  Dietary  Computer 8vo,  i  50 

Rideal's  Sewage  and  Bacterial  Purification  of  Sewage 8vo,  3  50 

Turneaure  and  Russell's  Public  Water-supplies 8vo,  5  oo 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) I2mo,  i  oo 

Whipple's  Microscopy  of  Drinking-water 8vo,  3  50 

Woodhull's  Notes  on  Military  Hygiene i6mo,  i  50 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

De  Fursac's  Manual  of  Psychiatry.     (Rosanoff  and  Collins.).  . .  .Large  lamo,  2  50 
Emmons's  Geological  Guide-book  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  Excursion  of  the 

International  Congress  of  Geologists Large  8vo,  i  50 

Ferrel's  Popular  Treatise  on  the  Winds 8vo.  4  oo 

Haines's  American  Railway  Management I2mo,  2  50 

Mott's  Composition,  Digestibility,  and  Nutritive  Value  of  Food.  Mounted  chart,  i   25 

Fallacy  of  the  Present  Theory  of  Sound i6mo,  i  oo 

Ricketts's  History  of  Rensselaer  Polytechnic  Institute,  1824-1894.  .Small  8vo,  3  oo 

Rostoski's  Serum  Diagnosis.     (Bolduan.) I2mo.  i  oo 

Rotherham's  Emphasized  New  Testament Large  8vo,  2  oo 

Steel's  Treatise  on  the  Diseases  of  the  Dog 8vo,  3  50 

Totten's  Important  Question  in  Metrology .8vo,  2  50 

The  World's  Columbian  Exposition  of  1893 4*°.  i  oo 

Von  Behring's  Suppression  of  Tuberculosis.     (Bolduan.) i2mo,  i  oo 

Winslow's  Elements  of  Applied  Microscopy I2mo,  i  50 

Worcester  and  Atkinson.     Small  Hospitals,  Establishment  and  Maintenance; 

Suggestions  for  Hospital  Architecture :  Plans  for  Small  Hospital .  I2mo,  125 

HEBREW  AND   CHALDEE  TEXT-BOOKS. 

Green's  Elementary  Hebrew  Grammar I2mo,  i  25 

Hebrew  Chrestomathy 8vo,  a  oo 

Gesenius's  Hebrew  and  Chaldee  Lexicon  to   the  Old  Testament  Scriptures. 

(Tregelles.) Small  4to,  half  morocco,  5  oo 

Uttews's  Hebrew  Bible 8vo>  »  3S 

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